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IDEAL SCENE OF TKOGLODYTIC LIFE. 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



BY 



CHARLES R^U. 



ILLUSTRATED. 



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NEW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUAEE. 
1876. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by 

HAKPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



The sketches constituting this volume appeared last year in 
six consecutive numbers of Harper'^s New Monthly Magazine. 
The publishers having concluded to offer them to the public in 
the form of a book, it became incumbent on the author to re- 
vise the sheets, and to make such alterations and additions as the 
progressive character of prehistoric investigation in Europe de- 
manded. There are many readers who have neither the occasion 
nor the time for perusing the more extensive works treating of 
the primitive condition of man, but who desire to obtain a gen- 
eral knowledge of the subject. For such readers the present 
condensed account is intended. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Washington, Smithsonian Institution, January, 1876. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Page 
The Drift 11 



CHAPTER II. 
The Caves 37 

CHAPTER III. 
The Troglodytes 59 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Troglodytes — Continued 84 

CHAPTER V. 

Kitchen-middens and Lake Settlements 106 

CHAPTER VI. 

Neolithic Implements 137 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

Ideal Scene of Teoglodttic Life Frontispiece. 

Skeletok of the Mammoth. — St. Peteesbueg 11 

Drift Implement fkom St. Acheul, Amiens (Half Size) 17 

Drift Implements from St. Acheul, Amiens (Half Size) 19 

Flint Flake from Montiers, Amiens (Half Size) 20 

COSCINOPORA GlOBULARIS (NATURAL SiZb) 21 

Drift Implement from Icklingham, Suffolk (Half Size) 23 

Skeleton of the Gigantic Irish Deer 24 

Skull of the Woolly-haired Rhinoceros 26 

Skull of the Cave-bear 27 

The Mammoth 36 

Section of a Part of the Cave of Gailenreuth, Bavaria 37 

Flint Implements from Kent's Cavern (Half Size) 45 

Bone Implements from Kent's Cavern (Natural Size) 46 

Section of the Grotto of Aurignac 49 

The Neanderthal Skull (Side Yievs^) 63 

The Engis Skull (Side View) 53 

Perforated Tooth of a Lion. — From the Lowest Deposit of a 
Grotto near Sorde, on the River Oloron, Southern France 

(Natural Size) 58 

Representation of a Mammoth on a Plate of Ivory (Reduced). 

— From La Madelaine 59 

Flint Implements from the Dordogne Caves (Half Size) 64 

Horn and Bone Implements from the Dordogne Caves (nearly 

Half Size) 68 

Hollowed Pebble of Granite (about One-third of Natural Size). 

— Les Eyzies 71 

Ornaments from the Dordogne Caves (nearly Half Size) 72 

Representations of Fishes and a Horse on a Baton of Reindeer 

Horn (Length, One Foot). — La Madelaine 73 

Delineations on Pieces of Antler. — La Madelaine 75 

Fragment op a Baton of Reindeer Horn terminating in an Ani- 
mal's Head (Natural Size). — Laugerie Basse 77 



10 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 
Deawing op the Alpine Ibex on Reindeer Antleb (Natural Size). 

— Laugerie Basse 78 

Head op the Antilope Saiga engraved on Bone (Natural Size). 

— From the Grotto op Gourd an, near Montrejeau, Haute - 

Garonne 83 

Entrance to the Hohlefels Cave, Wurtemberg 84 < 

Implement made op the Jaw op a Cave-bear (nearly Halp Size). 

— Hohlepels Cave 90 

Reindeer Skull transpormed into a Vessel (nearly Halp Size). 

— Hohlepels Cave 92 

Amulets prom the Hohlepels Cave (Halp Size) 93 

Restored Earthen Vessel. — From the Trou du Frontal 101 

Representations op Animals prom Thayngen, Switzerland (Natu- 
ral Size) 103 

Figure op a Browsing Reindeer engraved on Reindeer Horn 

(Natural Size). — From Thayngen, Switzerland 105 

Ideal Representation op a Swiss Lake-village 106 

Implements from the Kjokkenmodding at Meilgaaed Ill 

Lacustrine Relics op Stone, Horn, and Bone 122 

Pick-shaped Implement of Stag Horn (20 Inches long). — Lake op 

Neuchatel 126 

Lacustrine Manufactures of Wood and Clay 127 

Woven and Plaited Fabrics of the Lake-men 129 

Carbonized Pear and Apples prom the Lake-dwellings (Natural 

Size) 135 

Tumulus op the Stone Age. — Island op Moen, Denmark 137 

Danish Cromlech 139 

Danish Flint Tools 141 

Flint Arrow-heads (Natural Size). — Great Britain and Denmark. 143 
Flint Arrow-head mounted in a Silver Frame (Natural Size). 

— Worn as a Charm in Scotland 144 

Large Flint Weapons 146 

Polished Flint Implements (Denmark) 147 

Polished Stone Celts 149 

Drilled Stone Axes (One-fourth op Natural Size). — Denmark... 150 

Broken Axe with new Shaft-hole (Half Size). — Sweden 152 

Perforated Hammer op Quartzite (Half Size). — England 153 

Sink-stone and Hammer-stone (One-third op Natural Size). — Den- 
mark 154 

Ornamented Danish Vase (One-third op Natural Size) 156 

Geinding-stone. — Varenne-Saint-Hilairb, France 159 




SKELETON OF THE MAMMOTH. — ST. PBTEBSBUEG. 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



CHAPTEK I. 



TBE DRIFT. 

All races of the earth, it is now well understood, were at 
a certain period of their existence so little advanced in the arts 
of civilization that necessitj'' compelled them to employ wood, 
bone, horn, shells, but especially stone, as the materials for man- 
ufacturing their simple tools, weapons, and objects of personal 
adornment. 

This period, doubtless everywhere of long duration, is called 
the Stone Age. It preceded in Europe, and probably in certain 
parts of Asia and Africa, the introduction of bronze, which is 



12 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

a mixture of copper and tin, tlie latter metal usually forming 
about one-tentli of the composition ; and bronze again was final- 
ly superseded by iron, the most important of all metals, and the 
great lever of civilization. Thus we have for the Old World 
three succeeding phases of human development — the Ages of 
Stone, Bronze, and Iron — which demonstrate that man slowly 
and gradually emerged from a condition of utter barbarism, and 
ultimately, after long -continued struggles, advanced toward the 
highest state of modern refinement. It is supposed by many 
persons who have not paid sufficient attention to the subject 
that the Stone Age was a state of existence common to the 
whole population of the Old World during a certain period of 
remote antiquity. This is an error which needs correction. The 
same age which was an Age of Stone in one part of the East- 
ern hemisphere may have been an Age of Metal in another. 
Thus certain nations of Europe may have been so far advanced 
that they used bronze, while others, as yet unacquainted with 
metallurgy, continued to employ stone and other available ma- 
terials in the fabrication of their implements. The various 
degrees of technical ability attained by the aboriginal inhab- 
itants of the American continent at the time of its discovery 
may be adduced as an illustration. The North American In- 
dians north of Mexico lived, as every one knows, in an Age of 
Stone, fashioning out of this material their arrow and spear 
heads, hatchets, cutting implements, agricultural tools, and smok- 
ing utensils. It is true, they employed copper to a limited ex- 
tent for similar purposes, chiefly, however, for objects of orna- 
ment. Yet they lacked, as far as investigations hitherto have 
shown, the knowledge of melting that metal ; they simply ham- 
mered masses of native copper, obtained from the shores of Lake 
Superior, into the required shapes, and consequently treated cop- 
per as malleable stone. The more civilized Mexicans and Peru- 
vians, on the other hand, were skillful workers in various metals, 



THE DRIFT. 13 

such as gold, silver, copper, and tin, the last two of which they 
melted together, thus producing bronze, a composition, as ex- 
perience taught them, much harder than pure copper. 

Yet even these more advanced nations of America, notwith- 
standing their knowledge and frequent application of bronze, 
still continued to use to a great extent tools and weapons of 
stone at the time when their countries were invaded by the 
Spaniards, who consequently witnessed that curious epoch in 
American civilization which may be called the transition from 
the Age of Stone to that of Bronze. The wretched inhabitants 
of Tierra del Fuego are even now living in an Age of Stone, 
and so were many of the remote North American tribes not 
long ago, before the wave of emigration from the East had reach- 
ed them. As for iron, no facts have come to light which would 
indicate that the extraction of this metal from its ores was prac- 
ticed by any of the nations and tribes of America. The intro- 
duction of iron in this continent is coeval with the arrival of 
colonists from Europe. In the Old World, likewise, the intro- 
duction of bronze caused nowhere a sudden discontinuance of 
the manufacture and use of stone instruments, a fact proved by 
their frequent occurrence in burial-places and other deposits of 
the Bronze Age; and even in times when the superior qualities 
of iron were already known, implements of stone had not yet 
entirely fallen into disuse. We lay some stress on these facts, 
lest the reader might be led into the error of looking upon the 
three ages as sharply defined phases in the development of man 
in the Eastern hemisphere. 

Among the recent results of archaeological investigation in 
Europe which are especially calculated to throw light on the 
primitive condition of man, we mention first the discovery of 
rude flint implements associated with the bones of extinct ani- 
mals, such as the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and others, in the 
undisturbed drift ■ deposits along certain rivers in France and 



14 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

England. The drift-beds inclosing those implements and animal 
remains are formed by layers of sand, gravel, and loam, which 
extend along the slopes of river valleys, and reach sometimes 
to a height of two hundred feet above the present water-levels, 
although their usual elevation does not exceed forty feet. These 
beds of drift evidently were not deposited by the sea, but by 
former or still existing rivers, for the shells which they contain 
belong to land and fresh -water species, and not to such as in- 
habit the sea. The materials composing them, moreover, consist 
of fragments of the same rocks which occur in the areas drained 
by the rivers themselves, a circumstance affording another proof 
of their having been deposited by these waters. The latter, of 
course, had formerly a greater expanse, and ran at much higher 
levels, indicated in each case by the height of the deposits along 
their banks. Hence the enormous time may be inferred which 
it required to excavate the present river channels. The climate 
of Europe, there can be little doubt, was much colder when 
those deposits were in progress of forming than it is at present. 
Every spring, consequently, the melting of the accumulated 
masses of ice and snow caused the rivers to rise to considerable 
heights, flooding extensive portions of the adjacent country, 
deepening the river channels, and spreading over the valleys 
the debris of the surface, together with the remains of animals 
destroyed by the floods. 

The knowledge of the occurrence of flint tools in such strata 
dates as far back as the beginning of the last century; but the 
importance attached to the subject was then overlooked, and 
only at the present time the full significance of these unpre- 
tending relics of by-gone ages has been duly recognized. The 
celebrated Cuvier, it is well known, denied, or, to say the least, 
doubted, the existence of fossil human remains, and his author- 
ity fixed, as it were, the opinion of men of science ; for it is a 
general experience that prominent investigators leave not only 



TEE DRIFT. 15 

their achievements, but likewise their errors, as inheritances to 
the world. 

About 1715 a spear-head-shaped flint implement, still pre- 
served in the British Museum, was found with the skeleton of 
an elephant in the gravel on which London stands; and at the 
beginning of the present century Mr. John Frere discovered 
many flint articles of similar form in a fresh -water formation 
near Hoxne, Suffolk, in conjunction with the jaw-bone and teeth 
of what he called " an enormous unknown animal," which proved 
to be an elephant. The flint implements occurred in this place 
in great number — about five or six in a square yard — and the 
manner in which they lay seemed to favor the conclusion that 
they had been manufactured on the spot. The formation con- 
sisted of stratified loam and gravel, the latter containing the 
flint tools and the fossil bones. The bed of loam was employed 
at the time of Mr. Frere in the fabrication of brick ; and even 
about 1860, when some English geologists examined the local- 
ity, the extraction of clay was still going on in the same brick- 
pit, and it was ascertained, moreover, that the layers still yield- 
ed from time to time these instruments of flint. 

Mr. Frere's discovery, however, was little heeded at the time 
when it occurred, and soon vanished from the memory of men 
of science, until it was brought again to their notice many years 
afterward, when Boucher de Perthes made known the important 
results of his investigations. This enthusiastic and indefatigable 
French savant began in 1841 his examination of the gravel-beds 
in the valley of the Somme, at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, 
Picardy, during which he found in these strata a great number 
of flint tools of antique type, in connection with the remains 
of the mammoth and other extinct quadrupeds, under circum- 
stances which warranted the conclusion that the manufacturers 
of the tools and those animals lived at the same period. Insti- 
gated by the success of Boucher de Perthes, Dr. Rigollot, of 



16 EABLY MAN IN EVBOPE. 

Amiens, in the same valley, searched the drift -beds near that 
place, especially those of St. Acheul, in the suburbs of Amiens, 
and collected in the course of a few years several hundred speci- 
mens of flint tools, resembling in the rudeness of their make 
those from the gravel -pits of Abbeville. Though flint imple- 
ments of similar character were afterward found in corresponding 
deposits in France, and quite frequently in England, those of 
the valley of the Somme, on account of their abundance, have 
attracted the greatest share of attention, and therefore have be- 
come types of the whole class. 

The prevailing geological formation in the North of France, 
and especially in Picardy, is the chalk, containing here, as else- 
where, those well-known nodules of flint, the formerly much- 
sought material of which, before the introduction of percussion- 
caps and lucifer-matches, gun-flints and "strike -a -lights" were 
manufactured. In times long past, before the district of the 
Somme exhibited its present geological features, tertiary depos- 
its, chiefly of a sandy character, covered these cretaceous rocks. 
The tertiary strata, however, mostly have been carried away by 
the action of water ; and their materials, converted by solution 
and attrition into clayey substance, sand, and gravel, settled, 
with other debris^ upon the denuded chalk, and thus contrib- 
uted to the formation of the drift in the valley, through which 
the river has scooped its channel. The valley is about a mile 
wide between Amiens and Abbeville, and increases in width 
as it approaches the British Channel, into which the Somme 
empties. 

At Menchecourt, near Abbeville, where Boucher de Perthes 
discovered the first flint tools, sometimes twenty or thirty feet 
below the surface of the soil. Sir Charles Lyell has pointed out 
three distinct layers, which we will describe in a few words, 
proceeding in descending order : 

1. Brown clay, with angular flints, and occasionally chalk 



THE DRIFT. 



17 




DRIFT IMPLEMEKT FROM ST. ACHEUL, AMIENS (hALF SIZE), 

rubble, unstratified, following the slope of the hill, of very va- 
rying thickness, from two to five feet and upward. 

2. Calcareous loam, buff- colored, resembling loess, for the 
most part unstratified, in some places with slight traces of 
stratification, containing fresh-water and land shells, with bones 
of elephants, etc. ; thickness about fifteen feet. 

3. Alternations of beds of gravel, marl, and sand, with fresh- 
water and land shells, and in some of the lower sands a mixture 
of marine shells; also bones of elephant, rhinoceros, etc., and 
flint implements ; thickness about twelve feet. 

This third layer rests immediately upon the chalk. The 
mixture of fluviatile and marine shells observed in it proves, 
according to Lyell, that the sea sometimes gained upon the 

2 



18 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

river, whether at high tides or when the fresh-water was less in 
quantity during the dry season, and sometimes, perhaps, when 
the land was slightly depressed in level. All these accidents 
might occur again and again at the mouth of any river, and give 
rise to alternations of fluviatile and marine strata. 

The flint implements themselves are very rude, and obvious- 
ly indicative of the low and barbarous state of those who fash- 
ioned them. They were split from the nodules of flint so fre- 
quently occurring in the chalk ; some of them even exhibit por- 
tions of the chalky crust which always surrounds these flinty 
bodies. The two prevailing forms of the flint tools are those of 
roughly wrought spear -heads and of oval or almond-shaped 
disks, sharpened around their edges, the latter kind being de- 
nominated " hatchets," from their resemblance to stone hatchet 
blades still in use among very low tribes of savages. The im- 
plements of the spear -head type are more abundant at Ami- 
ens, while the so-called hatchets prevail near Abbeville. Besides 
these, numerous flakes of various shapes and sizes occur in the 
drift of the Somme, which were in most cases the result of a 
single blow, being split off during the process of fashioning the 
more finished tools already mentioned. Many of these flakes 
doubtless served for cutting, scraping, and other kindred pur- 
poses. The shape of the implements designated as hatchets and 
spear-heads depended, in all probability, much on the original 
outline of the chalk-flints from which they were manufactured. 
These nodules are mostly of a roundish or elongated form ; and 
in making their tools the ancient people of the Somme valley 
knocked two of them together until flattish fragments of suita- 
ble size came off, which they brought into the required shape by 
blows aimed at their circumference. Hence many of the imple- 
ments are not exactly of the oval or spear-like form, but present 
shapes intermediate between them. As a rule, the narrower or 
more pointed end of these instruments is the one adapted for 



THE DRIFT. 



19 



cutting. The tools of the spear-head type usually vary in length 
from six to eight inches, though larger ones have been found. 
Many of them seem to have been used with the hand, the end 
opposite the pointed part being often thick and massive to facil- 
itate handling; and in some the lower end has not been fash- 
ioned at all, but has been left in its original state, when the 
form of the flint presented a suitable handle. Others, which 
are worked thinner at the lower end, perhaps were fastened to 
poles, and thus actually served as spear-heads. 




DRIFT IMPLEMENTS FROM ST. ACHEUL, AMIENS (hALP SIZe). 

Considering the strength and character of the quadrupeds sur- 
rounding these primeval people, it seems hardly probable that 
they could have dispensed with long weapons for attack and 
defense. A number of the implements called hatchets were in- 
serted, it is believed, in cleft sticks, and fastened with the sinews 
or hides of animals, thus fulfilling the purpose which their name 
implies. Sucb primitive weapons were common among many 
races in various parts of the world, as they are, indeed, even in 



20 



EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 




FLINT FLAKE FROM MON- 



our days among tlie natives of Australia; and the grooved 
North American stone tomahawk, around which a withe was 
bent for a handle, presents but a higher devel- 
opment of the rude hatchet of the drift. 

It must be particularly stated that none 
of the implements found in the river drift are 
provided with ground edges, and that no oth- 
er process but that of chipping was employ- 
ed in shaping them. The art of grinding and 
polishing utensils of stone belongs to a much 
later phase of the European Stone Age, when 
a variety of characteristic and well-defined 
tools and weapons had superseded the primi- 
tive productions of the savage men who w^ere 
TIERS, AMIENS (half ^^^^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^ cxtiuct aulmals. Archseolo- 

size). 

gists, therefore, divide the European Stone Age 
into a period of chipped and one of ground stone, or, technically 
speaking, into a paleolithic (old-stone) and a neolithic (new-stone) 
period. These distinctions will be more minutely explained here- 
after. 

The appearance of the drift implements indicates their high 
antiquity. Originally split from a dull dark-gray flint, their sur- 
faces are now altered in various ways, according to the character 
of the matrix which inclosed them. Those that are found in 
chalky or silicious sands have a polished, glossy appearance, al- 
together different from that of newly broken flint ; others, taken 
from ochreous or ferruginous sands, are stained with yellow or 
brown colors ; in some beds they appear white and porcelain-like, 
and in others they are covered with a calcareous film. Occa- 
sionally the surface of the flint tools is marked with those dark 
moss or tree-like figures called dendrites, which owe their origin 
to infiltrations of oxides of iron and manganese; and though 
these markings furnish no proof of very high antiquity, having 



THE DRIFT. 21 

been noticed on bones obtained from later Roman graves, they 
are nevertheless, says Lyell, a useful test of antiquity when sus- 
picions are entertained of the v^orkmen having forged the hatchets 
they offer for sale. Generally speaking, the flint tools exhibit the 
same alterations of surface which characterize the flint pebbles 
found in connection with them. It is evident, therefore, that 
they are coeval with the beds of gravel in which they are in- 
closed. 

Though we have already attempted to indicate some of the 
probable uses to which the flint tools were applied, it must not 
be inferred that people in as low a state as the drift men were 
particularly choice in the employment of their scanty utensils, 
which, on the contrary, as we may suppose, had to serve for vari- 
ous purposes, as the exigencies of the moment required. " It is 
useless," says Sir John Lubbock, " to speculate upon the use made 
of these rude yet venerable weapons. Almost as well might we 
ask, to what use could they not be applied ? Numerous and 
specialized as are our modern instruments, who would care to 
describe the exact use of a knife ? But the primitive savage had 
no such choice of tools. We see before us perhaps the whole 
contents of his workshop ; and with these implements, rude as 
they seem to us, he may have cut down trees, scooped them out 
into canoes, grubbed up roots, attacked his enemies, killed and 
cut up his food, made holes through the ice in winter, prepared 
fire- wood, etc." 

The implements just described constitute the only remains of 
human industry thus far found in the river drift of 
Picardy, although it may be presumed that the prime- 
val people of the Somme valley employed various ob- 
jects made of wood, bone, and horn ; but these, being 
less durable than the almost indestructible flint, have (natural 
perished. Strange enough, there is some reason for the 
supposition that the men who once dwelt in this region, notwith 




COSCINOFORA 
GLOBULARIS 



22 EAELY MAN IN EUROPE. 

standing their extremely low state, already evinced that love for 
personal adornment vi^hich seems to be innate in human nature, 
and has been met even among the least advanced of mankind. 
There occurs in the cretaceous formation a small globular petri- 
faction, Coscinopo7'a glohularis^ v^^hich is either provided by nat- 
ure with a hole passing through its middle, or has frequently on 
two opposite sides small cavities, the beginnings, as it were, of 
perforations, the material being softer and more spongy in the 
direction of the axis. Thus nature furnished objects which al- 
ready presented beads, or could easily be converted into such, and 
it seems that the men of the drift actually employed them as or- 
naments; for Dr. Eigollot, in searching the gravel-beds of Amiens, 
often found small groups or heaps of them in one place, all perfo- 
rated, just as if they had been strung together at the time when 
they were brought to the spot. The writer has in his possession 
a number of such petrifactions, exhibiting perfect as well as in- 
cipient perforations, obtained from the chalk of the Baltic island 
of Kiigen, where they are supposed to have been used in the same 
manner by the ancient inhabitants. 

During the years following the important discoveries of 
Boucher de Perthes and Dr. Eigollot, drift implements analo- 
gous to those of the Somme have been found in various parts of 
England, often in association with the remains of extinct ani- 
mals, and thus furnishing, in corroboration of the results obtain- 
ed by the French savants, the evidence of man's co- existence 
with creatures belonging to a long-lost fauna. The English im- 
plements occur, according to Mr. John Evans, " in beds of gravel, 
sand, and clay, for the most part on the slopes of existing river 
valleys, though occasionally at considerable distances from any 
stream of water, and in some rare cases not thus imbedded, but 
lying on the surface of the ground." Having gone into some de- 
tail in describing the drift tools of Picardy, we can not enter in 
this sketch upon the subject of similar British implements, but 



THE DRIFT. 



23 




DRIFT IMPLEMENT FROM ICKLINGHAM, SUFFOLK (hALF SIZE). 

must refer the reader to Mr. John Evans's excellent work on the 
"Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great 
Britain," in which the various river valleys and other localities 
yielding drift implements are enumerated, and the implements 
themselves carefully figured and described. 

We must now proceed to give some account of the principal 
animals, extinct as well as still living, that co-existed with man 
during the drift, in order to show more clearly what position hu- 
man beings occupied in that remote period. 

The Mammoth (JElephas prirnigenius). — An elephant of huge 
size, with enormous tusks, much more curved than those of exist- 
ing species. The remains of this animal, which became extinct 
in Europe at so early a period that not the slightest tradition of 
its former existence has survived, are found in the Old World 
from the northernmost parts of Siberia to the extreme West of 
Europe : it ranged as far southward as the North of Italy, but 
does not seem to have existed south of the Pyrenees. Bones of 
the mammoth also occur in North America, from Behring Strait 



24 



EARLY MAN IN EUBOPE. 



to Texas. These elephants abounded in Siberia, where their car- 
casses repeatedly have been found imbedded in ice, the flesh and 
skin still well preserved. Toward the beginning of this centu- 
ry, a Tungusian hunter discovered one inclosed by ice near the 
mouth of the river Lena. He waited several years until the 
animal had become exposed by the melting of its icy shroud, and 
then cut off its tusks, which he sold for fifty rubles. The flesh 
of the body afforded for some time food to the dogs kept by the 
people of the neighborhood, and to white bears, wolves, foxes, 
and other wild beasts, until finally Mr. Adams, a member of the 
Academy of St. Petersburg, put a stop to these ravages, and took 
pains to save the remains from further destruction. The skele- 
ton was almost complete, excepting a fore-leg which the animals 




SKELETON OF THE GIGANTIC IRISH DBEK. 



THE DRIFT. 25 

of prey had carried off. "According to the assertion of the Tun- 
gusian discoverer," says Professor Owen, " the animal was so fat 
that its belly hung down below the joints of the knees. This 
mammoth was a male, with a long mane on the neck; the tail 
was much mutilated, only eight out of twenty-eight or thirty cau- 
dal vertebrae remaining; the proboscis was gone, but the places 
of the insertion of its muscles were visible on the skull ; the skin, 
of which about three-fourths were saved, was of a dark-gray color, 
covered with a reddish wool, and coarse long black hairs. The 
dampness of the spot where the animal had lain so long had in 
some degree destroyed the hair. The entire skeleton, from the 
fore part of the skull to the end of the mutilated tail, measured 
sixteen feet four inches; its height was nine feet four inches. 
The tusks measured along the curve nine feet six inches, and in 
a straight line from the base to the point three feet seven inches. 
Mr. Adams detached the skin on the side on which the animal 
had lain, which was well preserved ; the weight of the skin was 
such that ten persons found great difficulty in transporting it to 
the shore. After this the ground was dug in different places to 
ascertain whether any of its bones were buried, but principally 
to collect all the hairs which the white bears had trodden into 
the ground while devouring the flesh, and more than thirty-six 
pounds' weight of hair was thus recovered. The tusks were pur- 
chased at Yakutsk, and the whole then expedited to St. Peters- 
burg ; the skeleton is now mounted in the Museum of the Petro- 
politan Academy."* 

Mammoth bones are found in great number in Siberia, and 
the tusks form a valuable article of commerce, furnishing the so- 
called fossil ivory. Thousands of tusks have been collected and 
used in turning, yet others are still procured and sold in great 
plenty. The mammoth roamed in large herds over the plains 

* See illustration at the beginning of this chapter. 



26 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

of Siberia, where it fed on the leaves of spruce and fir, and even 
crushed twigs of considerable size between its powerful molars. 
This animal, it is believed by some, existed for a long time in 
Northern Asia before it found its way to Europe, in w^hich conti- 
nent it does not seem to have lived prior to the period of the 
drift. Another species of elephant, the Elephas antiquus, existed 
during the drift time, but its remains occur less frequently than 
those of the mammoth. 




SKULL OP THE WOOLLY-HAIRED KHINOCEEOS. 



The Woollt-haieed Ehustoceeos {Bliinoceros tichorJiinus). — 
An extinct animal whose remains occur mostly associated with 
those of the mammoth, showing that their range was nearly the 
same. It was frequent in Siberia, whence it seems to have emi- 
grated to Europe with the mammoth. In its habits it resembled 
the last-named animal, feeding on leaves and boughs, and was 
likewise covered with a fur of combined wool and hair. The lat- 
ter fact admits of no doubt, preserved specimens of this rhinoce- 
ros having been found imbedded in Siberian ice. This creature 
was large of body, but short-legged, and carried two horns upon 
a nose supported by an osseous septum. Several species of rhi- 
noceros lived at the epoch under notice, among which the woolly- 
haired is most frequently mentioned. 

The Hippopotamus. — A pachyderm denominated Hippopota- 
mus major, which was not uncommon during the drift, may be 
identical with the species inhabiting the large rivers of Africa. 

The Cave-Bear (Ursus spelceus). — The remains of this ani- 



THE DRIFT. . 27 

mal, as will be seen hereafter, are very frequent in caves; hence 
the name. They abound in Central Europe, especially in Germa- 
ny, and in the southern parts of Kussia, occurring also in Italy 




SKULL OF THE CAVE-BEAR. 



and Spain. The cave-bear, perhaps an earlier inhabitant of Eu- 
rope than the mammoth, was a huge animal surpassing in size the 
North American grizzly, and must have possessed great strength, 
though it has been inferred from the frequent absence of the so- 
called gap-teeth in this species that it may have been less fero- 
cious than its size would indicate. It is doubtful whether the 
cave -bear was the progenitor of any of the existing species of 
bear. Future investigations and comparisons probably will set- 
tle that point. Another bear of the period under notice, the TTr- 
sus priscuSj is supposed by some to survive in the grizzly bear of 
this country. 

The Cave-Lion (^Felis speloea). — A formidable animal, supe- 
rior in size and strength to any of the present feline species. 
This carnivore, which was formerly thought to belong to the 
tiger kind, is now considered as a variety of the still existing 
lion, "possessing in an exaggerated degree the characters by 
which that species is distinguishable from the tiger" (Sir John 
Lubbock). The cave-lion has left its remains in England, France, 
Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, including the Sicilian Island. 
It deserves mention in this place that lions appear to have lived 
in South-eastern Europe down to historical times. According 
to Herodotus, they attacked in the mountains of Thessaly the 



28 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

camels in the army of Xerxes; and Aristotle speaks of tliem as 
being frequent in the region between the rivers Achelous and 
Nessus. 

The Cave- Hyena (Hycena spelcea) resembled the spotted 
hyena of the Cape, but was larger and more powerful. 

The Urus (^Bos primigenius). — A large bovine, which be- 
came extinct in recent times. Caesar describes these animals, 
which abounded at his time in the Hercynian Forest, in Ger- 
many, in the following terms : " They nearly equal the elephant 
in bulk, but in color, shape, and kind resemble a bull. They 
are of uncommon strength and swiftness, and spare neither man 
nor beast that comes in their way. They are taken and slain by 
means of pits dug on purpose. This way of hunting is frequent 
among the youth of Germany, and serves to inure them to fatigue. 
They who kill the greatest number, and produce their horns in 
public as a proof, are in high reputation with their countrymen. 
It is found impossible to tame them or to conquer their fierce- 
ness, though taken ever so young. Their horns, both in large- 
ness, figure, and kind, differ much from those of our bulls. The 
natives preserve them with great care, tip their edges with silver, 
and use them instead of cups on their most solemn festivals." 
They were hunted, according to the "Nibelungenlied" of the 
twelfth century, in the forests near Worms, and are said to have 
still existed in Germany during the sixteenth century, soon after 
which they seem to have totally disappeared. These animals 
co-existed with the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, and 
their geographical distribution was extensive, remains of them 
occurring throughout Europe : in Great Britain, Denmark, Swe- 
den, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and even, it is said, in North- 
ern Africa. The race is now extinct, unless it has survived, as 
some have suggested, in the large Frisian oxen, or the wild cattle 
of Chillingham, in England. 

The Aurochs, or Bison {Bison JEhroj^ceui). — Another large 



TRE DBIFT. 29 

bovine, resembling the North American bison, erroneously called 
buffalo. Remains of the aurochs are found in England, France, 
Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and 
Russia. Pliny and Seneca speak of it as existing in the great 
forests of Germany, but Caesar gives no account of the animal, 
which is, however, mentioned, by the side of the urus, in the 
" Nibelungenlied," and was still hunted, it is said, in Prussia 
down to the year 1775, after which it became extinct in Ger- 
many. These bisons would have totally disappeared from Eu- 
rope but for the care of the Russian Government, which preserves 
a herd of them in a forest of Lithuania, guarding against their 
destruction by strict laws.* A few also occur wild in the Cau- 
casus Mountains. 

The Musk-Ox, oe Musk-Sheep {Ovibos moschatus). — Now to- 
tally extinct in the Old World, but still inhabiting in herds the 
arctic regions of America, seldom wandering farther south than 
the sixty-eighth parallel. It is a horned animal of the size of 
small cattle, and clad in a dense fur of long silky hair. Remains 
are found in Central Europe, and rarely in England. 

The Gigantic Ieish Deee {Megaceros Hihernicus). — This 
beautiful stag, which once inhabited Germany, France, Italy, and 
England, but especially Ireland, had entirely disappeared before 
historical times. A mysterious animal mentioned as the schelcli 
in the "Nibelungenlied" has been thought to be identical with 
the Irish deer; yet this is an opinion unsupported by any evi- 
dence. Its bones are said to occur often in peat bogs; but Pro- 
fessor Owen, who made numerous inquiries on the subject, be- 
lieves that the remains generally are met in a shell marl underly- 

* In 1830, the herd numbered, according to Sir John Lixbbock, Vll head, 
of which, during the Polish revolution in 1831, 115 were killed. From that 
time they gradually increased until 1857, when the numbers were 1898; but 
during the late Polish rebellion they fell to 874. Since 1863 no numbers 
have been given. 



30 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

ing the peat. The animal was ten feet four inches high, and car- 
ried on its small head magnificent antlers, measuring eleven feet 
between their tips. 

To this list should be added the reindeer, which played a 
very conspicuous part in the prehistoric times of Europe ; the 
horse, stag, elk, hog; and likewise numerous smaller animals 
which lived at the period under consideration, as proved by col- 
lateral evidence, though their bones, on account of their inferior 
size, have not been preserved in the river gravel ; and it may be 
stated here that only the larger and more solid bones of the ele- 
phant and hippopotamus, the ox, horse, and stag, are found in 
these deposits. The fauna of the European drift comprised, be- 
sides the extinct mammalians, such as the mammoth, rhinoceros, 
Irish deer, etc., most of the now existing species, and was conse- 
quently richer and more varied than that of the present day. As 
absolutely extinct can only be regarded the mammoth, the differ- 
ent species of rhinoceros, and the Irish deer. The cave-bear, cave- 
lion, cave-hyena, and others may still survive, as we have seen, 
under modified forms, and the term " extinct," therefore, must be 
applied to them in a somewhat restricted sense. 

The climate of Europe, as we already observed, must have 
been more rigorous at that period than at present. Yet the cave- 
lion and hyena, and particularly the hippopotamus, elephant, rhi- 
noceros, etc., would seem to indicate a warm rather than a cold 
climate. The question is certainly a perplexing one, from what- 
ever point it may be viewed. The reader knows that the ele- 
phant and rhinoceros of that period, unlike the almost hairless 
species of our days, were covered with a dense fur consisting of 
wool and hair, which enabled them to endure an arctic tempera- 
ture. The tiger of Southern Asia, it is adduced, has been seen in 
Siberia as far north as the fifty-second degree ; and in the North 
of Africa hyenas are known to prowl about the highest regions 
of the Atlas Mountains, where during winter a severe cold, with 



THE DRIFT. 31 

ice and snow, is reigning. Of the extinct carnivores, moreover, 
the bones only have been found, and nothing is known of their 
external covering, which may have been suited to a cold temper- 
ature, and the same argument is brought forward in reference to 
the hippopotamus. The reindeer, essentially a Northern animal 
both in the Old World and in North America, has long ceased to 
live in the West of Europe, and has retreated to the coldest part 
of that continent ; while the musk-ox, entirely extinct in Europe, 
survives only in the snow regions of North America, ranging, it is 
believed, even higher toward the pole than the reindeer. Lastly, 
we have to mention, as characteristic of the European drift, the 
glutton, lemming, rat-hare (Lagomys)^ and pouched marmot, all 
of them now inhabitants of cold countries. 

On the whole, the facts here enumerated are indicative of a 
rigorous temperature during the time, or at least a great part of 
the time, when the river gravels were deposited; and such a 
state is perfectly corroborated by geological evidence, as we will 
try to explain in a few words. 

The quaternary formation, to which the deposits of river 
gravel belong, is geologically the most recent one, although it 
extended over an immense period of time. It was preceded by 
the tertiary epoch, during which a milder temperature reigned, 
as indicated by the character of the then existing plants and 
animals. " The end of the tertiary period," says Professor Vogt, 
" which we do not separate from the present by a sharply defined 
line, but by a broad transitional margin, was doubtless distin- 
guished by a somewhat warmer climate than that which at pres- 
ent obtains in Central Europe. While in the middle of the terti- 
ary period palms were growing in Switzerland, and high Califor- 
nian pine-trees in Iceland, the end of the tertiary period was 
marked by a number of evergreen plants, with a temperature in 
Switzerland like that of Italy." Toward the end of the tertiary 
period a change in the physical condition of the earth was effect- 



32 EARLY MAN IN EVBOPE. 

ed by a general refrigeration, whicli, of course, exerted a powerful 
and modifying influence on the organic beings then in existence. 
Under the influence of various causes not yet sufficiently recog- 
nized, large portions of Europe, Asia, and America became cov- 
ered with huge masses of ice, while the lower lands of the con- 
tinents were flooded by glacial waters. Land and water were 
then somewhat differently distributed in Europe: the Baltic, for 
instance, is supposed to have communicated with the White Sea 
and the Sea of Kara ; and England, perhaps, was still connected 
with the main -land of Europe, and Denmark with Norway. 
These remarkable changes extended over an immense space of 
time, the Glacial Period of geologists. An exposition of the 
many curious phenomena connected with it, such as the transpor- 
tation of boulders and the formation of loess, belongs to geology, 
and, of course, can not be attempted in this place. For our pur- 
pose it suffices to have alluded to the circumstance which inau- 
gurated toward the end of the tertiary period that change in the 
temperature which permitted animals now belonging to northern 
climates to subsist in Western Europe. 

The reign of cold, however, was not one of uninterrupted con- 
tinuance. There are, on the contrary, strong reasons for believing 
that its rigor was moderated by long periods of comparative 
warmth. Mr. James Geikie published, in 1874, a work entitled 
" The Great Ice Age, and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man," 
in which he advances the view that certain animals whose re- 
mains occur commingled in river gravels and cave deposits can 
not have been contemporary inhabitants of the same localities of 
Europe, and he therefore believes in alternate changes or oscilla- 
tions of climate, which permitted tropical and northern species 
of animals to inhabit certain districts at different periods, when 
the temperature was congenial to their respective natural habits. 
Southern quadrupeds, like the hippopotamus, lion, and hyena, 
he thinks, can not have lived side by side with the reindeer. 



THE DRIFT. 33 

musk-ox, mammoth, or woolly rhinoceros; and he rejects the view 
of those geologists who bridge over this difficulty by assuming 
that certain animals of the first-named class migrated annually 
during the severe season to warmer regions, and returned to 
their old haunts again when milder weather set in. It remains 
to be seen whether Mr. Geikie's conclusions will meet with gen- 
eral approval. 

The evidence that man witnessed in Europe the last glacial 
phenomena is not wanting. Only a short time ago there were 
discovered in an interglacial bed of lignite or brown coal at Wet- 
zikon, in Switzerland, several wooden sticks which are cut and 
sharpened in a manner as to leave no doubt of their having been 
wrought by human hands. The bed of lignite in which these re- 
markable relics occurred underlies and rests upon formations of 
glacial origin, and has yielded bones of the Elephas antiquus, an 
extinct rhinoceros, the cave-bear, urus, and several still existing 
quadrupeds.* Whether the human race can be traced as far 
back as the tertiary period is a question whicli the future will 
decide. Some slight indications at least of man's presence before 
the quaternary epoch are not wanting, and the fact may yet be 
established by incontestable evidence. 

Surrounded by an animal world such as we have described, 
lived the first human beings of whom any tangible tokens have 
been left. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, but represent- 
ed, beyond question, the lowest type of that condition of human 
existence. Archaeologists are accustomed to infer the social state 
of prehistoric populations from the productions of their mechanic- 

* Speaking of the same formation of lignite, Sir Charles Lyell observes: 
"Although no human remains or works of art have yet been found in work- 
ing the Swiss lignite, it would be rash to speculate on the non-existence of 
the human race in the region where these interglacial deposits accumulated 
on the margin of the lakes." Had the great geologist lived a year longer, he 
would have seen his conjecture realized. 

3 



34 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

al skill ; and we have just beheld in the West of Europe a race 
of men who used the most primitive weapons ever found; and 
with these wretched arms, some of which were attached to clubs 
and poles, they fought the beasts of the field, and met each other 
in deadly combat. They were unacquainted, as it appears, with 
the use of bows and arrows, and with the manufacture of pottery. 
Indeed, they lived in the lowest stage of the Stone Age, which 
age, at later periods, has furnished a variety of tools and weapons 
remarkable for the skill, and even for the sense of elegance, of 
those who made them. 

Human remains were long sought in vain in the tool and 
bone bearing strata of the Somme valley, and many were the rea- 
sons given to account for their absence. It was said, for instance, 
that the number of human beings living at the drift period must 
have been small in comparison with that of the animals of the 
same epoch, the severe struggle for existence not permitting the 
race to multiply in a rapid ratio ; and the comparative smallness 
of human bones, moreover, was adduced as a ground for their dis- 
appearance. At length, however, M. Boucher de Perthes succeed- 
ed in finding, at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, a human lower 
jaw of peculiar shape, which he extracted himself from the stra- 
tum immediately above the chalk. The jaw is of the same dark- 
bluish color that characterizes the surrounding sand, as well as 
the flint tools occurring in the latter. This discovery was follow- 
ed shortly afterward by that of other human remains at the same 
place. The jaw-bone of Moulin-Quignon, now preserved in the 
Museum of Natural History at Paris, has given rise to many dis- 
cussions among the learned, even to a congress of French and En- 
glish savants held in loco. Generally speaking, French and Ger- 
man anthropologists consider the jaw as a relic belonging to the 
age of the mammoth and the worked flints, while the savants of 
England seem to be skeptical in the matter. No doubts, howev- 
er, are entertained with regard to portions of the human skeleton 



THE DBIFT. 35 

found in 1868 by Messrs. Bertrand and Keboux in the valley of 
the Seine, near Clichy, and elsewhere near Paris, in the same beds 
in which implements of the true drift type have been discovered. 
We can not quote in this short sketch the computations of 
geologists concerning the antiquity of the river drift; for these 
details we must refer to the proper authorities, such as Sir 
Charles Lyell, Evans, and others. Yet, in conclusion, we will 
draw the reader's attention to a remarkable circumstance rela- 
ting to the age of the drift in the valley of the Somme. There 
extends through a considerable portion of that valley a bed of 
peat from twenty to thirty feet in thickness, and undoubtedly of 
later origin than the drift-deposits of the same locality. In this 
peat are found imbedded the bones of quadrupeds and shells, all 
of the same species now inhabiting Europe ; and, further, trunks 
of the alder and walnut and stems of the hazel, together with 
nuts of the same. The workmen who cut the peat declare that 
in the course of their lives none of the hollows which they have 
found or caused by extracting peat have ever been refilled even 
to a small extent, and therefore deny that peat grows. This, how- 
ever, is a mistake, the increment in one generation not being per- 
ceptible to an ordinary observer. Near the surface of the peat 
occur Gallo-Koman remains, and, still deeper, weapons of the later 
Stone Period. But the depth at which these works of art are 
found can not be considered as a sure test of age, the peat being 
often so fluid that heavy substances may sink through it by 
their own weight. In one instance, however, Boucher de Perthes 
observed several large flat dishes of Roman pottery lying in a 
horizontal position in the peat, the shape of which must have 
prevented them from sinking through the underlying peat. Al- 
lowing about fourteen centuries for the growth of the superin- 
cumbent vegetable matter, he calculated that the thickness gain- 
ed in a hundred years would be no more than three French cen- 
timetres, or about nine -eighths of an English inch. "This rate 



36 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



of increase," says Sir Charles Lyell, from whom the above state- 
ments are taken, " would demand so many thousands of years 
for the formation of the entire thickness of thirty feet that we 
must hesitate before adopting it as a chronometric scale." 




THE MAMMOTH. 




SECTION OF A PART OF THE CAVE OF GAILENEEUTH, BAVAKIA. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE CAVES. 

The exploration of caves in England, France, Belgium, Germa- 
ny, and other parts of Europe has been even more fruitful in im- 
portant results illustrative of the former condition of man than 
the examination of the river gravels treated in the preceding 
chapter. Caves, it is well known, mostly occur in limestone rocks 
of various geological formations, and differ very much in extent 
and shape. Thus the so-called grottoes are short cavities with 
wide external apertures, owing in many cases their origin to soft 
materials, such as marl, that have been carried off from beneath 
the harder rocks which now form their roofs, while the real cav- 
erns are frequently of surprising dimensions, extending for miles 
under the ground, and containing large chambers or halls, con- 
nected by galleries often so low that visitors must creep on hands 
and feet in order to pass through. Sometimes these chambers 
are not situated in the same plane, but have to be reached by 



38 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

ladders from above or from below. The entrances to the caves, 
though in most cases nearly horizontal, or more or less inclined, 
are sometimes quite perpendicular, forming natural shafts. Some 
caves, like the celebrated Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, contain 
small lakes or navigable running waters, harboring curious fishes, 
in which, owing to the eternal darkness that surrounds them, the 
organ of sight has remained undeveloped. 

Limestone rocks are remarkable for being traversed by many 
fissures and cracks, presenting natural conduits through which 
the atmospheric water is carried into the interior of the mount- 
ains. This water possesses the quality of dissolving to some ex- 
tent the lime with which it comes in contact. In reaching the 
caves, it trickles from the roofs and the sides, and, having evapo- 
rated, deposits its contents in the shape of thin layers of carbon- 
ate of lime wherever circumstances favor that process. The in- 
crustations adhering to the roof, which gradually have acquired 
the form of icicles, are called stalactites, while those on the floor 
appear like conical or columnar elevations, designated as stalag- 
mites. Often these pendent and rising formations have met, 
presenting pillars or buttresses, or have assumed other strange 
shapes, in which the tourist, who views them by the flickering 
light of a torch, imagines to recognize curtains, cascades, organs, 
statues, altars, and other odd figurations which his fancy may sug- 
gest. How many thousands of years were required for building 
up these sometimes colossal accumulations of calcareous matter 
can not be determined, considering that the increment may not 
progress in an invariable ratio even in the same cave ; but in or- 
der to show how slowly the deposit sometimes increases we will 
mention that in the celebrated cavern of Adelsberg, in Illyria, 
names and dates traced in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- 
ries can be deciphered even at present, the incrustation formed 
since that time not having acquired a thickness sufficient to hide 
those inscriptions. 



THE CAVES. 39 

In caves where these calcareous formations have been pro- 
gressing-^ for in some they are wanting — the floor is covered 
with a stalagmitic crust of variable thickness. Below it there 
occurs in many cases a more or less stratified layer of yellow or 
reddish earth, in some instances of considerable thickness, which 
frequently rests upon a basis of pebbles, differing in material 
from the rocks of the neighborhood, and evidently brought from 
distant places. The earth or mud just mentioned is often of lit- 
tle consistency, and almost loose, but sometimes strongly impreg- 
nated with lime, in which case it forms a cement of considerable 
hardness. This substance has been designated as lone-earth^hQ- 
cause the bones of extinct and living animals are abundantly 
found in it, and likewise, though more rarely, those of man, to- 
gether with rude articles of his workmanship. 

Land and fresh- water shells of existing species are sometimes 
mingled with these remains. In general the bones lie indiscrim- 
inately scattered throughout the earth, in a manner altogether 
different from their relative position while belonging to the liv- 
ing organism, insomuch that the jaws are separated from the 
skulls, and that the different parts of a skeleton have rarely, if 
ever, been found in their proper places. Many of the bones re- 
tain their original sharpness of outline, which seems to indicate 
that they were still covered with the fleshy parts when intro- 
duced into the cavern; others, on the contrary, are worn and 
rounded by friction, thus exhibiting the unmistakable marks of 
their having been drifted by water. There is also a great dif 
ference in the chemical condition of the bones, some of which 
appear quite fresh, having retained their animal matter, while 
most of them are more or less void of it, and sometimes so far 
decayed that they crumble into dust upon being handled. Some 
bones, finally, have been gnawed and cracked by wild beasts. 

The osseous remains of European bone-caves are chiefly those 
of bears and hyenas, intermingled with the bones of wolves, foxes. 



40 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

gluttons, horses, oxen, stags, mammotlis, and other extinct or still 
living mammals. From the great preponderance of the bones 
of carnivores, it has been suggested that the caves served former- 
ly to those animals of prey as dens, into which they introduced 
their victims, torn or entire, to feed their young; and there is 
ample evidence that this v^as the case to some extent. Hyenas 
evidently have inhabited certain caves and reared their young 
in them. Bears likewise retire to caves, chiefly during hiberna- 
tion, but, according to Vogt, are not in the habit of introducing 
bones. Yet such occupations of the caves by bears and hyenas, 
even through many generations, can not account for the aston- 
ishing number of bones found in some of them. In the cave 
of Gailenreuth, in Bavaria, were discovered within ninety years 
the remains of at least eight hundred cave-bears ; and from the 
amount of bone-earth in another Bavarian cave Dr. Buckland has 
calculated that five thousand five hundred animals of the same 
species were there entombed. Large collections of bones, more- 
over, are found in caves with entrances so high that no living 
animals could have had access to them. The rolled stones, final- 
ly, which, as we have mentioned, often underlie the bone-earth or 
are mingled with it, certainly were not brought to their places by 
wild beasts. 

It must be assumed, therefore, that the bone- caves owe their 
deposits in a great measure to the agency of water. The surface 
of Europe, as we have shown, was subject to great changes at 
those remote periods when the now lost animals were still in 
existence, and we have alluded to the causes by which floods, 
more or less extensive, were produced. When the then higher 
levels of the water-courses and their increased swiftness are taken 
into consideration, it would seem to require no great stretch of 
fancy for imagining in what manner pebbles, mud, shells, and 
bones, fresh as well as decayed, were introduced into the caves, 
even into such as are now found high above the bottoms of val- 



TmJ CAVES. 41 

leys. In some caves containing no pebbles the mud may have 
been gradually deposited by the melting of snow. Caves, doubt- 
less, were the first dwelling-places of primitive man. They afibrd- 
ed him protection against the inclemency of the weather, against 
the attacks of wild beasts and of enemies of his own race. Oc- 
casionally he also deposited there his dead. Hence the human 
remains found in bone -caves may be, in a number of cases at 
least, mementoes of their former occupants. Some, however, be- 
lieve that human bones and tools were mostly washed into the 
caves, like the animal remains and other materials there deposited. 

A satisfactory solution of the question how bone-caves were 
filled is by no means easy, and geologists therefore are not quite 
agreed on that point. Several causes, such as a successive occu- 
pation by animals and man, or vice versd, together with the action 
of water, may occasionally have co-operated in the formation of 
the deposit in the same cave. This view, we must expressly 
state, applies only to bone-caves proper ; other caves undoubtedly 
served as the regular habitations of man, who has left there abun- 
dantly the tokens of his occupancy, as we shall have occasion to 
show in the sequel. 

After this condensed general description of bone -caves, we 
will now proceed to lay before the reader a few of the most im- 
portant facts resulting from the cave researches which have been 
carried on with uncommon zeal, especially within late years, in 
various countries of Europe. 

In 1828, M. Tournal discovered in the cavern of Bize, Depart- 
ment of the Aude (Southern France), human bones and teeth, to- 
gether with fragments of rude pottery, in a layer of mud and 
breccia containing land shells of living species and the bones 
of mammals, such as the aurochs and the reindeer, the latter of 
which is not known to have lived in historical times in France, 
and whose remains usually occur in that country associated with 
those of the mammoth. Bones of an antelope, a stag, and a goat 



42 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

were also met in this cave. The Human remains were found to 
be in the same chemical condition as those of the accompanying 
quadrupeds. M. Tournal concluded that these remains had not 
been suddenly washed in by a flood, but had been gradually in- 
troduced at successive periods. At the same time M. De Chris- 
tol gave an account of his discoveries in the cavern of Pondres, 
near Nismes, in the neighboring Department of the Gard, where 
he had discovered some human bones, with those of an extinct 
hyena and a rhinoceros, in a deposit of mud and gravel which 
filled the cave up to the roof. He also found there fragments of 
two kinds of pottery, the rudest lying near the bottom of the 
cave, below the level of the extinct mammalia. The conclusions 
arrived at by Messrs. Tournal and De Christol, that man had 
co-existed with those animals, was disputed by contemporary sa- 
vants; and Sir Charles Lyell himself, after having examined a 
number of caves in Germany, "came to the opinion that the hu- 
man bones mixed with those of extinct animals, in osseous brec- 
cias and cavern mud, were probably not coeval. But of late 
years," says this eminent geologist, " we have obtained convincing 
proofs that the mammoth and many other extinct mammalian 
species very common in caves occur also in undisturbed alluvium 
(or drift), imbedded in such a manner with works of art as to 
leave no room for doubt that man and the mammoth co-existed." 
Among cave-explorers the late Dr. Schmerling, of Liege, occu- 
pies a prominent rank. After having devoted many years to a 
careful examination of the caves in the valley of the Meuse and 
its tributaries, he published in 1833 the results of his investiga- 
tions, but unfortunately died before his merits were duly appreci- 
ated by the scientific world. Many of the caves — he examined 
more than forty — never had been visited by explorers, and he 
found their floors incrusted with an unbroken stalagmitic cover- 
ing, under which the bones of extinct and living animals and 
those of man occurred in the bone-earth. The human bones lay 



TRE CAVES. 43 

scattered about like those of the animals, and corresponded in 
appearance and chemical condition perfectly to the latter, which 
were sometimes broken and rounded, and never exhibited traces 
of having been gnawed. Dr. Schmerling, therefore,. came to the 
conclusion that these caves had neither served as burying-places 
nor had been the dens of wild beasts, but that streams communi- 
cating with the surface of the country had introduced their con- 
tents. The animal remains found by him were those of the cave- 
bear, cave-hyena, mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, red deer, 
roe, wild cat, wild boar, fox, wolf, weasel, beaver, hare, rabbit, 
hedgehog, mole, dormouse, field-mouse, water-rat, shrew, and some 
others. Together with these were dispersed through the cave 
mud land shells of living species, and in rare instances bones of 
fresh-water fish, snakes, and birds. 

The most important remainder of man discovered by Schmer- 
ling is the skull of the Engis cavern (now totally quarried away), 
which was found imbedded five feet deep in a breccia, associated 
with the remains of the rhinoceros, reindeer, and horse. This 
skull, now preserved in the museum of Liege, has attracted much 
attention on the part of anthropologists, and has, like that found 
in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlrott in a cave of the Neanderthal, near Diis- 
seldorf, elicited much comment concerning the physical and men- 
tal condition of prehistoric man. "We shall have occasion to 
speak of these two skulls at the close of this chapter. 

Dr. Schmerling found many rude flint flakes or knives, evi- 
dently made by man, dispersed through the mud of the caves; 
and in one cave, that of Chokier (now obliterated), he obtained a 
polished needle-shaped bone implement perforated at the lower 
extremity, which occurred in a matrix containing the remains of 
a rhinoceros. 

The Belgian savant clearly pointed out that man once lived 
contemporaneously with several extinct species of quadrupeds; 
but his views, being contradictory to the then prevalent opinions 



44 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

of geologists, did not meet witli approval at the time of their pub- 
lication, and his reputation as a clear-sighted investigator dates 
from a period when neither distrust nor applause could any long- 
er affect him. The energy displayed by Dr. Schmerling is worthy 
of particular mention. ^ He had to be let down, says Lyell, day 
after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide to the foot of the 
first opening of the Engis cave, where the best-preserved human 
remains were found: and after having thus gained access to the 
first subterranean gallery, he was compelled to creep on all fours 
through a contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there to 
superintend by torch-light, week after week and year after year, 
the workmen who were breaking through the stalagmitic crust, as 
hard as marble, in order to remove piece by piece the underlying 
bone breccia, nearly as hard. Thus he remained for hours with 
his feet in the mud and with water dripping from the roof on his 
head, in order to mark the position and guard against the loss 
of each single bone of a skeleton. And at length, after having 
found leisure, strength, and courage for all these operations, he 
looked forward, as the fruits of his labor, to the publication of un- 
welcome intelligence, opposed to the prepossessions of the scien- 
tific as well as the unscientific public. Such has been the fate of 
too many discoverers. 

About the same time, when Dr. Schmerling was carrying on 
his explorations of Belgian caves, the Rev. J. MacEnery, of the 
Catholic clergy, found in Kent's cavern, near Torquay, Devon- 
shire, in the red loam below the stalagmitic covering, not only 
bones of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct quad- 
rupeds, but also a number of flint tools, some of which resemble 
the oval-shaped kind common at Abbeville. Mr. God win- Austen 
published in 1840 an account in which he stated that he had ex- 
humed in Kent's cavern, from the undisturbed loam below the 
stalagmite, works of man, such as arrow-heads and knives of flint, 
with remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear, and 



THE CAVES. 



45 




. ^ 




FLINT IMPLEMENTS FKOM KENT'S CAVEEN (hALF SIZe). 

a feline animal of large size ; and that all these must have been 
introduced before the stalagmitic flooring had been formed. In 
1864, a systematic exploration of the cave was begun, and is 
still successfully progressing, under the superintendence of Messrs. 
Pengelly and Vivian. 

There occurs above the thick and almost continuous stalagmit- 
ic floor of Kent's cavern a black mold, in which numerous relics, 
belonging to diiferent times, have been found, such as stone im- 
plements of the later period, bronze articles, bone instruments, 
pottery (in part distinctly Eoman in character), marine shells, 
numerous mammalian bones of existing species, and some human 
bones, on which it has been thought there are traces indicative 
of cannibalism. The red cave-earth helow the stalao;mite contains 
abundantly bones of extinct animals and implements fashioned 
by the hand of man ; and in a part of the cave there extends, im- 
mediately underlying the stalagmite, a thin layer of black soil in- 
closing charcoal, numerous flint implements, and bones and teeth 
of animals. According to Mr. Evans, the principal forms of the 
tools are these : tongue-shaped flint implements, and others of flat 
ovoid form, with an edge all round ; flakes of flint of various sizes 
and wrought into different shapes, including the so-called scrap- 



46 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

ers;* the cores from which flakes have been struck; and stones 
which have been used as hammers or pounders. Besides these, a 
few pins, harpoons, and needles of bone have been discovered. 




i-iSfeaS^' 






BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM KENT'S CAVEEN (NATURAL SIZE). 

1. Fragment of Harpoon-liead. 2. Pin. 3. Fragment of Needle. 

With the exception of the hippopotamus and the musk-ox, 
the fauna of Kent's cavern comprises all extinct species already 
enumerated as occurring in drift gravels, together with a number 
of quadrupeds still existing in Europe, like the reindeer, stag, 
wolf, fox, glutton, and various rodents ; yet the dog, roe, sheep, 
goat, common ox, pig, and rabbit are wanting. Among the most 
interesting remains taken from beneath the stalagmite of Kent's 
cavern may be counted a few teeth of the sabre-toothed tiger 
{Maohairodus latidens), which were found by Mr. MacEnery as 
well as during the later exploration. This genus appears first in 
the middle tertiary formations of Europe. Mr. Evans concludes, 
from the number and character of the tools, which bear in many 
cases the distinct traces of their use, from the presence of charcoal 
and charred bones below the stalagmite, and from various other 
circumstances, that the cave was, during the accumulation of the 
bone-earth, at all events from time to time, the habitation of man. 

The Brixham cave, also situated near Torquay, was accident- 
ally discovered in 1858, and a committee of prominent geologists 
procured the means for a thorough exploration, which was con- 

* This class of implements will be described in another chapter. 



TEE CAVES. 47 

ducted by Mr. Pengelly. The cave chiefly consists of a succession 
of galleries of no great width, which were either entirely or part- 
ly filled with gravel, bones, and mud. At the top there occurred 
a layer of stalagmite from one to fifteen inches thick; next be- 
low was loam or bone-earth, of a red color, from one foot to fifteen 
feet in thickness; and at the bottom lay gravel containing many 
rounded pebbles. This stratum being probed in some places 
was found to exceed the thickness of twenty feet. The layer of 
bone -earth inclosed numerous mammalian remains, constituting 
a fauna almost identical with that of Kent's cavern. No human 
remains were found, but a number of worked flints of antique 
forms occurred in the lower part of the bone -earth, and some 
of them even in the underlying gravel. In the loam was discov- 
ered, in close proximity to a flint implement, the left hind-leg of 
a bear, every bone being in its natural place, which proves that 
the parts of the limb were still connected when it was brought 
to the cave. According to Mr. Pengelly, the deposit in the cave 
is probably owing to the transporting agency of water, in which 
case a valley seventy-five feet in depth, which now runs in front 
of the cave, could not then have existed, but must have been sub- 
sequently excavated. 

Space does not permit us to describe other English caves — 
for instance, the Wokey hyena den, near Wells, which, it seems, 
was tenanted at different times by hyenas and men, and has 
yielded some oval -shaped flint implements of the Abbeville 
type; nor can we attempt to enlarge on the bone-caves of the 
European continent, considering that other classes of caves will 
yet be brought to the reader's notice. Cave researches, we may 
state in this place, are progressing with constantly increased 
energy in Europe, giving rise to a literature of monographs and 
larger works that has already reached an almost bewildering ex- 
tent. The results, however, present only local differences, while, 
on the whole, the conclusions arrived at are the same, namely. 



48 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

that in times anteceding any historical record or tradition tribes 
of savage men lived in certain districts of Europe contemporane- 
ously with various species of animals which have either become 
extinct, or have migrated to other parts of Europe, or even to 
other continents. 

The various animal remains and tbose of man discovered in 
the bone-earth of a cave may not always belong to the same 
epoch, especially in cases where water has been the means of 
their transportation. A flood, it may be argued, will sweep 
from the surface any thing not too heavy to be carried away 
by it ; in places it will tear up the ground, and disentomb bones 
of animals that died long ago, or will remove, perhaps, remains 
of man, together with implements made by him, or with the 
bones of animals that perished either long before or long after 
the time of his existence. Thus it may have happened that re- 
mains of various periods became commingled in the mud of the 
same cave. In such cases the state of preservation of the bones 
themselves affords the best guidance in judging of their relative 
antiquity. The human bones found by Dr. Schmerling in the 
Belgian caves resembled in color, weight, and chemical condition 
perfectly those of the extinct and still living mammalia associated 
with them ; and hence the explorer concluded, and no one now 
doubts, that these human and animal remains belong to the same 
period. Various other circumstances must be taken into consid- 
eration. The bones of extinct animals found in caves are often 
split lengthwise, evidently not by animal agency, but by that of 
man, who thus opened them in order to extract the marrow — a 
method still practiced by modern savages. At other times these 
bones bear striae, or cuts, that could not have been produced by 
the teeth of wild animals, but must be ascribed to flint knives 
employed in detaching the flesh. The flint tools themselves, 
which occur commingled with the bones in caves as well as in 
river gravels, are quite peculiar in shape and workmanship, differ- 



TRE CAVES. 



49 



ing in many respects from those of tlie later or neolithic period of 
the Stone Age; and the animal remains sometimes found with 
these more finished instruments invariably belong to a fauna 
identical with that of historical times. We shall have occasion 
to bring forth yet stronger evidences. 




SECTION OF THE GROTTO OP AURIGNAC. 



The prehistoric tribes of Europe, as we have observed, some- 
times buried or deposited their dead in caves. Such a primitive 
place of sepulture was a small grotto in a limestone hill near 
Aurignac, in the Department of the Haute- Garonne, Southern 
France. It is situated about forty feet above the valley, through 
which a rivulet flows, and in front of it there extends a small 
terrace somewhat sloping toward the valley. The entrance to 
this grotto was formerly hidden by a talus of small stones and 
earth, which the rain probably had washed down the slope of 
the hill. Sportsmen, however, knew that there was at this place 
a hole into which the rabbits escaped when pursued by dogs. 
One day in 1852, a laborer, employed to repair the neighboring 
road, introduced his arm into the rabbit-hok and drew out from 
it a large human bone. Suspecting that the hole communicated 
with a cave, he set to work digging a trench through the talus, 
and after a few hours' labor he found himself opposite a large 

4 



50 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

slab of rock, placed vertically, whicli closed tlie opening of the 
grotto. Having removed the slab, lie looked into a small vaulted 
recess filled with human bones, among which were several entire 
skulls. This unusual occurrence created some excitement in the 
community, and the Mayor of Aurignac, Dr. Amiel, therefore or- 
dered all the bones to be re-interred in the parish cemetery ; but, 
being a physician, he first ascertained, by counting the correspond- 
ing bones, that they constituted the skeletons of about seventeen 
individuals of both sexes and all ages, and, further, that the adults 
must have been persons of small stature. Unfortunately these 
human remains are lost to science; for in 1860, when M.Edward 
Lartet, a distinguished paleontologist, visited Aurignac with a 
view to investigate the particulars of the discovery, the village 
sexton was unable to indicate the place where he had interred 
the bones. M. Lartet, not discouraged by this failure, determined 
to search the remaining deposits outside and inside the vault, 
and hired for this purpose workmen, whom he superintended 
during their digging operations. When these were finished, his 
observations resulted in the conclusion that the grotto had served 
as a place of sepulture, while on the small terrace in front of 
it funeral banquets had been held by the relatives and friends 
of the departed. His views were based on the following facts : 

Outside of the grotto there extended over an area of six or 
seven square yards a layer of ashes and charcoal from six to 
eight inches thick, which thinned off toward the vault, not actual- 
ly reaching it. This layer rested on the natural rock formation, 
and indicated the fire-place where the repasts were prepared 
and eaten. It contained broken, burned, and gnawed bones of 
extinct and recent quadrupeds, also rude hearth-stones, reddened 
by heat, and numerous works of art, but no osseous remains of 
man. Above this stratum lay a deposit of rubbish with simi- 
lar contents and a few scattered cinders. M. Lartet identified 
the bones of no less than nineteen species of carnivorous and 



TEE CAVES. 51 

herbivorous animals, those of the latter being most numerous. 
There were remains of the cave- bear, brown bear (?), badger, 
polecat, cave-lion, wild cat, cave-hyena, wolf, fox, mammoth (two 
molars and a heel -bone), woolly rhinoceros (a young animal), 
horse, ass (?), wild boar, gigantic Irish deer, stag, roebuck, rein- 
deer, and aurochs. The fox, horse, reindeer, and aurochs were 
represented by many individuals, and seem to have chiefly served 
as the food of those savage feasters. The bones containing mar- 
row had been split open by man for its extraction, many of them 
being also burned. The spongy parts were wanting, having 
been gnawed off by wild beasts, doubtless by prowling hyenas, 
which fed on the remnants of the meals. The bones of a young 
rhinoceros had been broken and gnawed in this manner. On 
many bones could be perceived the cuts produced by the flint 
implements used in removing the flesh. These remains were al- 
most exclusively obtained from the deposits extending before 
the entrance of the grotto. The bones found inside of it, in a 
layer of loose earth or rubbish, generally exhibited no traces of 
having been gnawed or scraped, the only exception being a col- 
caneum, or heel -bone, of the mammoth, of which animal no re- 
mains excepting this bone and two molars were found. The 
rubbish in the grotto yielded nearly all the bones of a cave- 
bear's leg, close together and uninjured, also the artificially 
shaped and perforated tooth of an animal of the same kind, 
teeth of the cave-lion, and some tusks of the wild boar. Hence 
it was inferred that those ancient hunters were in the habit of 
entombing trophies of the chase and food with their dead, in ac- 
cordance with a custom that was and still is common among 
many tribes of savages. 

The articles fashioned by man which were obtained from the 
deposits in the vault and outside of it consisted of numerous flint 
flakes or knives, sling-stones, chips, a flint core or nucleus from 
which flakes had been split, and one of those flat round stones 



52 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

with cavities on both sides supposed to have been used in mak- 
ing flint tools. Among other instruments, further, may be men- 
tioned arrow-heads without barbs, made of reindeer horn, and a 
well-shaped and sharply pointed bodkin cut from the horn of 
the roe-deer. Lastly, there were found with the skeletons in the 
vault eighteen small perforated disks, made of a kind of cockle- 
shell, or Cardium, which doubtless had originally been strung 
together for the purpose of ornament.* 

What we have just stated is a resume of the account given 
by M. Lartet after his first exploration of the Aurignac grotto. 
He subsequently revisited that locality, and continued his re- 
searches, in the course of which he obtained results not alto- 
gether in keeping, as it appears to us, with his former experi- 
ences. The number of skeletons found in the cave, the stone 
slab by which it was protected, and various other circumstances 
plainly indicate its use as a burial-place; and there can be no 
doubt that the terrace in front of the cave was often resorted to 
by savage hunters, who feasted there on the spoils of the chase. 
Yet the burials may be of much later date than the feasts. " It 
is very much to be regretted," said Sir John Lubbock ten years 
ago, " that M. Lartet was not present when the place was first 
examined; for it must be confessed that if he had seen the de- 
posits before they were disturbed, we should have been able to 
feel more confidence that the human skeletons belonged to the 
same period as the other remains." In 1870, M. Cartailhac, of 
Toulouse, paid a visit to Aurignac, " in order to see the cele- 
brated grotto, and to collect such objects as might have been left 
there." In examining the cave, he noticed a difference in the 
color of its walls, from which he judged that the lower de- 
posits must have been of a yellow color, and covered by a layer 

* Quite similar flat shell-beads were formerly made by the aborigines of 
North America. 



TEE CAVES. 



53 



of much lighter tint ; and while minutely searching the crevices 
of the cave, he found in the darker ground a tooth of the rhinoc- 
eros, one of the reindeer, and fractured bones of the cave -bear. 
The level of the higher deposit, on the other hand, yielded some 
small bones of living wild animals and of man, and also a 
pierced disk of Gardium and a fragment of pottery. The lower 
deposit of the cave, it would thus appear, corresponded with that 
outside of it, while the layer inclosing the human skeletons was 
formed at a subsequent time. However that may be, the chief 
result of M. Lartet's discoveries remains intact : he has furnished 
another proof that man was the contemporary of extinct animals, 
which served him for food, and that consequently the age of 
mankind reaches back to a very remote period. 




THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL (siDE VIEw). 



THE ENGIS SKULL (SIDB VIEW). 



Among the thus far discovered human remains referable to 
the far-distant epoch under notice, the Neanderthal skull, already 
mentioned, and that of the Engis cavern have chiefly excited the 
interest of the learned, and have caused much speculation con- 
cerning the physical and intellectual qualities of the primeval in- 
habitants of Europe. The first-named skull, or rather skull frag- 
ment — for it consists only of the upper portion of the cranium — 
belonged to a skeleton which was found in 1857 in a small 
grotto in the Neanderthal, or Neander valley^ not far from Diis- 
seldorf, Khenish Prussia. Quarrying operations led to the clear- 
ing of the grotto, situated about sixty feet above the bed of the 



54 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

small river Diissel, whicli flows through the valley. It contained 
a horizontal layer of hard loam intermixed with rolled gravel, a 
drift deposit identical with that occurring in all caves of the 
Dussel Valley, and in which the bones of extinct quadrupeds are 
sometimes found imbedded. In this gravelly loam of the Nean- 
derthal grotto the workmen found, two feet below the surface, a 
human skeleton, which they threw out in an unceremonious way, 
and which would have been lost to science but for the interfer- 
ence of Professor Fuhlrott, of Elberfeld, who rescued from total 
destruction the upper part of the skull, the thigh and arm bones, 
a collar-bone, a part of the pelvis, a shoulder-blade, and several 
fragments of the ribs. These remains are undoubtedly of the 
highest antiquity, possessing the same qualities which character- 
ize the bones of the mammoth, cave-bear, etc., occurring in the 
neighboring districts, and inclosed by the same kind of loam 
that contained the skeleton. Professors Fuhlrott, Vogt, and other 
anthropologists, therefore, conclude that the Neanderthal man 
lived together with the mammoth and other extinct animals of 
the drift period. The body probably had been washed into the 
grotto during high water. The skull was first described anatom- 
ically by Professor Schaaffhausen, of Bonn. He pointed out its 
enormous ridges above the orbits of the eyes, behind which the 
frontal bone is considerably depressed, its elongated, elliptical 
shape, narrow and low forehead, and unusual thickness. The 
other bones of the skeleton were found to correspond in length 
to those of a European of middle stature, but they were much 
stouter, and exhibited a greater development of the muscular 
ridges. On the whole. Professor Schaaffhausen comes to the con- 
clusion that the individual to whom the Neanderthal skull be- 
longed must have been distinguished by slight development of 
brain and uncommon strength of bodily frame. According to 
Professor Huxley, the skull in question is the most ape-like of 
the human crania yet discovered, and Professor Vogt expresses 



THE CAVES. 55 

himself to the same effect by stating that it has more of the 
simian or monkey type than any other known race skull. Yet 
Huxley is far from regarding the Neanderthal bones as the re- 
mains of a being intermediate between man and apes. At most, 
he thinks, they demonstrate the existence of a man whose skull 
may be said to revert somewhat to the pithecoid or ape type. 
Both Huxley and Vogt detect in the Neanderthal skull an ap- 
proximation to the cranial formation of the Australian.* 

The Engis skull, likewise fragmentary, but more complete than 
the one just described, was found, as we have stated, five feet deep 
imbedded in a breccia, in juxtaposition with remains of the rhi- 
noceros, reindeer, and horse. This skull, it will be noticed by a 
comparison of the drawings presented on page 53, indicates a far 
higher type than that of the Neanderthal. According to Huxley, 
" there is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure. 
It is, in fact, a fair average human skull, which might have be- 
longed to a philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless 
brain of a savage." 

In the first chapter we alluded to human bones found by 
Messrs. Bertrand and Reboux in the valley of the Seine, at Clichy, 
in the suburbs of Paris, in the same drift-beds in which flint im- 
plements of the oldest or paleolithic types had been discovered. 
The remains, among them a skull, occurred seventeen feet below 
the surface. The skull, which exhibits marked traces of inferior- 
ity, being narrow and slanting from the front to the back, is sup- 
posed to be that of a woman. 

Among the latest discoveries of remains of prehistoric man 
are those made by M. Riviere, who found in 1872, in one of the 
caves of Mentone, near Nice, France, the almost entire skeleton 
of a man above middle size, imbedded twenty feet below the 

* It should be stated that some anthropologists, among them Dr. Barnard 
Davis and Professor Virchow, consider the peculiar shape of the Neanderthal 
skull as a deformity caused by disease. 



56 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

surface of the deposit. The full day -light reaches the farthest 
end of the cave, a circumstance which enabled the discoverer to 
have the skeleton carefully photographed, just as it appeared 
after the removal of the superincumbent accumulations. The 
engravings made after this photograph present the skeleton 
stretched out in an attitude of repose, the head apparently sup- 
ported by the left hand, as if the man had been surprised by 
death during sleep. The bones and the surrounding earth vi^ere 
of a reddish color, produced by oxide of iron. Many pierced 
shells and teeth of the stag covered the skull, doubtless forming 
originally a chaplet or some other head ornament. A bone im- 
plement lay across the forehead, and tvro spear-heads of flint v^^ere 
placed below the occiput. Remains of the urus, cave-bear, cave- 
lion, cave-hyena, woolly rhinoceros, wolf, stag, chamois, and others, 
together with many marine and land shells, were found in the 
deposits above the skeleton; also chipped flint implements in 
great number, but neither ground tools nor pottery. The skele- 
ton, now in the collection of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, 
shows no marked approximation to the simian type, excepting, 
perhaps, the tihice, or shin-bones, which are more flattened than in 
the European of the present time. The skull is of a decidedly 
elongated form, exhibiting a somewhat narrow forehead. 

Professor Vogt draws attention to the extreme scarceness of 
remains of extinct animals in this cave, conjecturing their presence 
might be owing to a secondary deposit. 

In 1873, M. Riviere discovered in another cave of the neigh- 
borhood a second human skeleton, less complete than the one ex- 
humed by him in the preceding year, but likewise stained by ox- 
ide of iron, and decked with shell ornaments. A few unpolished 
flint implements lay near this skeleton. 

Later in 1873, and in the following year, he further succeeded 
in finding in caves near Mentone three additional skeletons, two 
of them belonging to children, the other to an adult individual. 



TSE CAVES. 57 

The head of the latter was surrounded with pierced sea -shells 
and teeth of the stag, originally constituting an ornamental head- 
dress. There were also found the remains of a necklace and of 
bracelets of shells and teeth. Curiously enough, this skeleton, 
too, was stained with oxide of iron, like those previously discov- 
ered by M. Riviere, who thinks that the covering of the corpse 
with micaceous specular iron formed one of the funeral customs 
of the people who deposited their dead in these caves. With 
this skeleton, whick belonged to a vigorous individual of good 
stature, and resembled in its details that first discovered by M. 
Riviere, were found a tooth of a cave -bear, bones of ruminants, 
pachyderms, and rodents (not specialized in the report before 
us), and a number of shells of edible marine moUusks ; also im- 
plements of bone and stone, the latter merely chipped, and most- 
ly consisting of sandstone, limestone, and other materials, but 
rarely of flint, as in the preceding cases. No implements or or- 
naments accompanied the skeletons of the children. 

Sir Charles Lyell is of opinion " that the time of inhumation 
of the remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and cave-bear in subaerial 
breccias at different altitudes in the cliffs of the neighborhood 
will have to be critically ascertained before their geological bear- 
ing on the age of the human skeletons can be finally settled." 

Generally speaking, the fauna of the caves thus far treated in 
these pages is analogous to that of the river drift, and the same 
peculiarities characterize the drift implements and those occur- 
ring, commingled with osseous remains, in the mud of caves. The 
bone and tool bearing strata of the drift and the older cave de- 
posits, therefore, may be assumed to belong to one period, pro- 
vided that this term is taken in its broadest and most expanded 
sense. 

In the next chapter we shall lead the reader once more into 
caves, but into suck as served as the regular habitations of human 
beings who were, to all appearance, somewhat more advanced and 



58 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

lived at a later period than the earliest European tribes, of whom 
we know now at least that they existed. The merit of having 
established a fact of such importance belongs to that indefatiga- 
ble class of investigators whose aim it is to bring light into the 
darkest recesses of hoary antiquity. 




PERFORATED TOOTH OP A LION. FROM THE LOWEST DEPOSIT OF A GROTTO NEAR SORDE, ON 
THE RIVER OLORON, SOUTHERN FRANCE (NATURAL SIZe). 




KEPRESENTATION OF A MAMMOTH ON A PLATE OF IVORT (kEDUCEd). — FROM LA MADELAINE, 

CHAPTER III. 

TRE TROGLODYTES. 

Theee are two valleys in France which have become localities 
of particular interest — we might almost say classical ground — to 
the student of prehistoric archaeology. One of them, the Somme 
Valley, has been brought to the reader's notice in a previous 
chapter ; and we now invite him to follow us to the valley of the 
Vezere, an affluent of the river Dordogne, which drains a por- 
tion of South-western France known under the name of Aqui- 
tania in ancient times. The valley of the Vezere is very rich in 
caves, which occur in the picturesque formations of cretaceous 
limestone bordering the meandrous river, and form a peculiar 
feature in its beautiful scenery. These caves, however, are not 
always such large halls and galleries as we have heretofore de- 
scribed, but in some instances mere hollows, or "rock-shelters" 
(ahris in French), owing their origin to the disintegration of soft 
strata which offered less resistance to atmospheric influences than 
the harder rocks covering them. In times long past, rude tribes 
of hunters and fishers used these hollowed rocks as dwelling- 
places, leaving there abundant tokens of their occupancy, which 
enable us to gain a pretty distinct view of their mode of life. 
Indeed, though their very existence was unknown to us not 



60 EARLY MAN' IN EUROPE. 

many years ago, we are now in some respects better acquainted 
with them than with certain nations of antiquity whose names 
are inscribed on the pages of history. Yet it was not prehistoric 
man alone who sought the shelter of these caves. "As civiliza- 
tion advanced," says Sir John Lubbock, " man, no longer content 
with the natural but inconvenient abode thus offered to him, ex- 
cavated chambers for himself, and in places the whole face "of the 
rock is honey-combed with doors and windows leading into suits 
of rooms, often in tiers one above another, so as to suggest the 
idea of a French Petra. In the troublous times of the Middle 
Ages many of these no doubt served as very efficient fortifica- 
tions, and even now some of them are still in use as store-houses 
and for other purposes. At Brantome I saw an old chapel which 
had been cut in the solid rock, and resembled the descriptions 
given of the celebrated rock-cut temples in India." 

The archaeological celebrity of the valley of the Vezere is 
owing to a group of caves and hollows situated on both sides 
of the river, at short distances from each other, and all embraced 
in the Department of the Dordogne. They were conjointly ex- 
plored by M. Edward Lartet, the distinguished French archaeolo- 
gist previously mentioned, and Mr. Henry Christy, an English 
gentleman of wealth and great scientific acquirements. This 
remarkable partnership of French and English intelligence and 
industry resulted in the publication of the "Eeliquise Aquitan- 
icse," a comprehensive and richly illustrated work, which, not- 
withstanding its Latin title, is written in the English language. 
We state with regret that both authors died before their work 
was completed. 

The caves and rock-shelters forming the group chiefly treated 
in the work just mentioned are Le Moustieo^ La Madelaine, Lau- 
gerie Haute, Laugerie Basse, Gorge dJ'Eiifer, Les Eyzies, and Cro- 
Magnon. In prehistoric times those localities, or " stations," as 
they are called, undoubtedly were inhabited by man for a very 



THE TBOGLODYTES. 61 

long period, during which the fauna underwent noticeable 
changes, at least in regard to the numerical proportion of the 
then existing species of animals, while in the same epoch a de- 
cided progress is traceable in the mechanical acquirements of man. 
So much can be inferred from the animal remains and works of 
art found in the different caves of the Vezere. Developments of 
such character are not the result of a few centuries, and hence a 
far greater length of time must be allowed for their realization. 
The people of whom we are about to treat have been called cave- 
men^ or troglodytes^ because they selected caves as their abodes 
whenever they could avail themselves of such natural retreats. 
Yet it must not be inferred that the population of a whole dis- 
trict was lodged in this manner, considering that caves afforded 
room only to a limited number of persons, while others not thus 
favored doubtless lived in rude dwellings of their own construc- 
tion, the traces of which, of course, have now totally disappeared. 
The rock-shelters, perhaps, formed in some cases the roofs under 
which huts were built. Generally speaking, the deposits in the 
caves under notice consist of broken bones, pebbles, and articles 
of flint, horn, and bone, intermingled with charcoal in fragments 
and dust, the whole often being cemented together, and forming a 
kind of tufa. These accumulations sometimes extend to a depth 
of eight or ten feet and a length of sixty or seventy feet. The 
cave-people of the Vezere district were more advanced and lived 
at a later period than the men whose implements are found in 
the gravel -beds of the Somme. These conclusions have been 
drawn from the fauna of the caves, and from the greater skill dis- 
played by the cave-dwellers in the manufacture of their imple- 
ments of war and peace. At the time when these caves served 
as the abodes of hunting tribes, the mammoth, cave-hyena, cave- 
lion, cave-bear, gigantic Irish deer, and others had not yet become 
extinct, but had apparently much decreased in number, while the 
reindeer, which inhabits in our time the northernmost portions 



62 EARLY MAN IN EUBOFE. 

of Europe, was prevailing, for which reason this epoch has been 
styled the Heindeer Period by archssologists.* Together with 
the reindeer, as common in the time of its preponderance, must be 
mentioned the horse, aurochs, ibex, and chamois, the last two of 
which have now left the lowlands and sought refuge in the more 
congenial temperature of Alpine heights. The Antilope Saiga^ 
an animal which now inhabits portions of Russia and Asia, be- 
longed at that time to the fauna of France, as shown by a small 
number of its bones found by M. Lartet and others. Remains of 
the mammoth and of the other extinct quadrupeds, with which 
the reader has been made acquainted in the preceding chapters, 
are of very rare occurrence in these caves. Plates of the molar 
teeth of the mammoth were found at various stations, and work- 
ed ivory at Les Eyzies and La Madelaine. A portion of a mam- 
moth's pelvis was discovered at Laugerie Basse, and the stump 
of a tusk of this huge quadruped in the cave of Cro-Magnon. 
As paleontological peculiarities special to a single locality, Lartet 
and Christy mention : in the Moustier cave, the half of a lower 
jaw of a hyena; at Les Eyzies, a metacarpal of a large feline 
(probably Felis spelced)^ bearing the marks of scraping, such as 
are found on the bones of the herbivores eaten by the cave-peo- 
ple ; at Laugerie Haute, two molars of the gigantic Irish deer ; 
and at Laugerie Basse, the phalanges of a great bear, marked 
with notches made by a cutting instrument. The scarcity of re- 
mains of extinct animals would render it doubtful, indeed, wheth- 
er the cave-dwellers of the Vezere co-existed with them, if there 
were no other evidences, yet to be brought forward, which settle 
that point in a conclusive manner. 

The animals most frequently hunted by the troglodytes, and 
furnishing their principal food, were the reindeer and the horse. 



* This terra is not generally adopted, but we retain it for the sake of 
classification. 



TRE TROGLODYTES. 63 

the first -named quadruped being of additional value to them on 
account of its antlers, which they worked very skillfully into 
implements of various descriptions. It appears, however, that 
they fed on every kind of animal they could obtain by force 
or cunning, not excepting carnivores, such as wolves and foxes. 
Remains of the stag are said to be rare, and still rarer those of 
the wild boar. Bones of birds and fishes, more especially of the 
salmon species, occur abundantly at some stations. It does not 
appear that these people kept any domesticated animals : neither 
the reindeer nor the horse seems to have been tamed by them, 
though there is some difference of opinion on that point. They 
had no sheep, goats, or cattle, and there were no dogs to protect 
the cave-men's rude dwellings, or to share with them the excite- 
ment of the chase. The absence of the dog, in particular, may be 
inferred from the appearance of the bones occurring in the cave- 
refuse ; for this animal, according to the experiences of Professor 
Steenstrup, eats only the soft, spongy parts of bones, especially of 
bird -bones, leaving the remainder uninjured. No bones muti- 
lated in this manner have been found in the caves und-er notice, 
which fact furnishes additional evidence that the cave-people kept 
no tamed dogs. To Professor Vogt the absence of the dog is sug- 
gestive of the non-domestication of the reindeer, which, he thinks, 
can not be subdued by man, and properly guarded, without the 
assistance of that animal. 

The caves were the banqueting halls of their inhabitants, and 
here the refuse of the meals accumulated, which now affords us 
the means of studying the bill of fare. The backbones of large 
quadrupeds, such as the horse and the ox, are not found in the 
caves, probably because these animals, being too heavy for trans- 
portation, were dismembered on the spot where they had been 
slain, for the purpose of carrying the extremities with their fleshy 
parts, together with the heads, separately to the rock -dwellings. 
This procedure was dispensed with when the game consisted of 



64 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



a reindeer or other less bulky quadruped. Such animals were 
brought home entire, as shown by the frequent occurrence of 
their complete skeletons in the refuse of the caves. Like other 




FLINT IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DORDOGNE CAVES (hALF SIZE). 

1. FLike (Gorge d'Enfer). 2. Almond-shaped blade (Le Moustier). 3, 4. Scrapers (Cro-Magnon). 
5, 9. Knife-shaped implements (Laugerie Basse and Les Eyzies). 6, 7. Piercing implements 
(Laugerie Basse). 8. Arrow-head (Laugerie Haute). 10. Nucleus, or core (Les Ejzies). 



THE TROGLODYTES. 65 

savages, the troglodytes used to break the bones and beads of 
the animals they had killed, in order to obtain the marrow and 
brain* Though charcoal abounds in the caves, as we have 
stated, the bones generally show no marks of roasting — a circum- 
stance rather puzzling to those who have speculated on the cave- 
men's method of cooking. Having no vessels of clay, it has been 
thought they used to cook their meat in wooden troughs filled 
with water, which they brought to the boiling-point by means of 
heated stones thrown into it.f Pebbles that might have served 
for this purpose are numerous in the caves. The French anthro- 
pologist. Dr. Paul Broca, thinks it much more probable that they 
cooked their food under the ashes, like certain savages of our own 
time. No traces of vegetable food have thus far been discovered ; 
they subsisted, it appears, chiefly by hunting and fishing. Bones 
gnawed by animals are not found in the caves themselves, doubt- 
less because the troglodytes had the means of closing in the 
night, or while absent, the entrances of their abodes, and to pro- 
tect them from the invasion of wolves, foxes, and other prowling 
beasts of prey. 

The reindeer hunters of the Dordogne Department displayed, 
as has been stated, much more skill in the manufacture of im- 

* The Prairie Indians, after a buffalo hunt, skillfully open the large bones 
of these animals and extract the marrow, which they deem a great delicacy. 
They use the brain of the buffalo, elk, deer, etc., as a softening material in the 
preparation of skins. 

f This practice prevailed among several North American tribes who were 
unacquainted with the manufacture of pottery. The Assinneboins, for in- 
stance, cooked their game in its own hide. Having taken off the skin, they 
pressed it down into a hole dug for the purpose, thus forming a receptacle 
that would hold water. In this most primitive kettle they boiled the meat 
by immersing red-hot stones. Among the Scotch Highlanders, even in the 
time of Bruce, the raw hide of an animal, stretched on four sticks, was used 
to form the bag in which the flesh was seethed. They employed also wood- 
en vessels, hollowed by the dirk, for the purpose of heating water by means 
of hot pebbles thrown into it. 

5 



QQ EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

plements than tlie people whose relics are found in the river 
gravels and in the cave deposits of earliest date. Flint contin- 
ued to be the kind of stone almost exclusively used by them; 
but the articles made of this material show a great variety of 
forms, and sometimes a finish which almost assimilates them to 
the manufactures of the later or neolithic phase of the Stone 
Age. Yet the people of the Vezere Valley were still ignorant 
of the art of grinding and polishing stone implements, no articles 
thus improved having been found in the cave deposits, which 
consequently belong to the paleolithic period, when chipping 
alone was employed in the manufacture of instruments.* The 
accumulations in the caves contain, according to Lartet and 
Christy, " innumerable chips and countless thousands of blades 
of flint, varying in size from lance-heads, long enough and stout 
enough to have been used against the largest animals, down to 
lancets not larger than the blade of a penknife, and piercing in- 
struments of the size of the smallest bodkin." Quite numerous 
are the so-called nuclei or cores, that is, blocks of flint from which 
narrow flakes have been struck oE by carefully directed blows, 
producing facets that give the objects an almost prismatic appear- 
ance. Some of the cores exhibit ten or twelve facets. The pres- 
ence of these nuclei of course indicates that flint implements were 
made in the caves. The flakes detached from these blocks are 
usually somewhat curved, owing to the peculiar fracture of flint, 
and sharp on both sides. They were either left in their original 
state and employed in various ways, or chipped into the form 
intended by the maker, to serve for cutting, sawing, and other 
purposes. Some of these implements terminate in stems, or tangs, 
doubtless for insertion into handles of wood, horn, or bone. The 
most delicate articles of flint made by the Dordogne cave-men 



* In some caves, however, pebbles with shallow cavities produced by- 
grinding have been found. They will be described hereafter. 



THE TBOaLODYTES. 67 

were those destined to serve as piercers or awls. We must not 
omit to mention the scrapers, whicli have occurred quite frequent- 
ly at different stations, as, for instance, at Cro-Magnon. They 
are oblong flakes, one end of which is brought to a rounded 
beveled edge by a series of small blows. The lower side always 
presents the unaltered fracture of the flint. The part opposite 
the curved edge is often worked into a sort of handle, which 
gives the implements a somewhat spoon -like appearance; oth- 
ers have both ends rounded, and are then designated as double 
scrapers. Representations of both kinds are given. These tools, 
which occur in almost all countries of the world, are supposed to 
have been used for scraping the skins to be made into garments 
or other coverings. Their shape certainly fits them well for that 
purpose ; but they may also have served in other operations. 
The Eskimos employ to this day quite similar stone scrapers, 
set in well-shaped handles of ivory or wood. Flint arrow-heads 
have been found at different stations, a fact proving that the 
cave-dwellers were acquainted with the use of the bow. Well- 
defined spear-heads of flint are not wanting, and at the cave of 
Le Moustier large almond-shaped blades, chipped only on one 
of the flat sides, were frequent, and are supposed to have formed 
the armatures of spears. This station, further, is remarkable for 
implements resembling much the so-called hatchets of the Somme 
Valley, and for a peculiar class of cutting implements or " chop- 
pers," with a single broad convex edge, and adapted by a thick 
back to be held in the hand. They are thought to have been 
used for breaking the marrow-bones. The flint implements of Le 
Moustier somewhat approach the drift types, and are generally 
of a ruder character than the chipped articles found at the other 
stations, which fact, in connection with various other circum- 
stances, renders it almost certain that this cave was inhabited by 
man at a much earlier epoch than any other of the group under 
notice. Round stones, much battered, are frequent in the rock- 



68 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



dwellings, and represent the hammers of the troglodytes. A 
pebble of suitable size and weight was the primitive hammer of 
man in all parts of the world. 




HORN AND BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DOEDOGNE CAVES (nBAELT HALF SIZE). 

1, 2, 3, 4. Barbed points of reindeer horn, used as heads of lances, harpoons, and perhaps of ar- 
rows (La Madelaine). 5, 6. Bone awls (Cro-Magnon). 7. Needle of reindeer horn (La Ma- 
delaine). 8. Whistle of reindeer bone (Laugerie Basse). 

The implements of horn and bone, which evince still more 
skill and patient labor than the flint tools just described, were 
likewise manufactured in the caves, many unfinished articles of 
this class having been discovered in the rubbish. Among such 
relics we will mention chisels, awls, needles, round and tapering 
lance-heads (with beveled lower ends for insertion into wooden 
shafts), harpoon -shaped lance -heads, barbed arrow-heads, small 
spoon -like instruments (supposed to have served for extracting 
the marrow from bones), whistles, and various other objects, the 
use of which is not always quite evident. These tools and 
weapons are mostly cut from reindeer horn, a material of great 
hardness, and therefore well fitted for the purposes to which it 
was applied. Illustrations of the principal forms are given. We 
would particularly draw the reader's attention to the armatures 
with barbs either on one side or on both, the manufacture of 
which must have been the result of long-continued painful labor, 



THE TBOGLODYTES. 69 

considering the inadequate flint tools by means of which the 
work was executed. What an amount of sawing, cutting, and 
scraping was necessary to produce, for instance, the figured im- 
plement with barbs on both sides! These harpoon -like arma- 
tures, attached to shafts, may have served both for hunting and 
for spearing fish, perhaps also for war, since it can not be sup- 
posed that the troglodytes lived always in harmony. Near the 
tapering lower end of the barbed weapons will be noticed little 
eminences or knobs, perhaps designed to aid in fixing the imple- 
ment in the shaft. It also has been suggested that the troglo- 
dytes employed harpoons with loosely inserted heads, which be- 
came detached from the pole after the fish had been struck. In 
this case the knob may have served for the attachment of a 
line. Harpoons of this description are in use among the Eskimos 
and other fishing tribes of the North American coasts. The 
barbs, it will further be seen, are provided with incisions or 
grooves, supposed by some to have served for the reception of 
poison, an opinion which we can not share, knowing that the ar- 
row-shafts of many Indian tribes, such as the Sioux, Blackfeet, 
and others, exhibit longitudinal grooves, intended to facilitate the 
flowing of the wounded animal's blood. With a similar view, 
the troglodyes may have cut grooves in the barbs of their weap- 
ons, if, indeed, these incisions were not merely designed for orna- 
mentation. Some of the barbed armatures which are of small 
size have been classed as arrow-heads. The sewing -needles of 
horn and bone deserve particular mention. They are of various 
sizes, sharply pointed, and well polished, and provided with round 
eyes of such smallness and regularity that doubts were at first 
entertained whether they had been drilled with stone, until M. 
Lartet successfully employed certain instruments of flint, found 
among the debris, in perforating horn and bone with holes not 
larger than those eyes. M. Lartet also discovered small pieces of 
sandstone bearing straight and rather deep grooves, and evident- 



70 EABLY MAN IN EUBOPK 

}j used for grinding those needles into shape. Needles of bone 
or walrus ivory, almost identical with those under notice, were 
formerly in common use among the Eskimos, who made their 
thread from the tendons of the wild reindeer. The discovery of 
these needles in the cave deposits is in so far of interest as the 
fact is thereby established that the troglodytes were sufficiently 
advanced to practice the simple art of sewing, and perhaps that 
of dressing the skins employed in the manufacture of garments 
which they had to wear on account of the then still reigning low 
temperature. 

Characteristic relics of these hunters are the whistles with 
which they gave each other signals when in the pursuit of the 
chase. These curious instruments, which have been found at 
several stations, consist of a bone of the hind-foot of a reindeer or 
chamois, and are pierced on one side with an oblique hole reach- 
ing only as far as the cavity of the bone. Upon blowing into 
the hole a shrill sound is produced. How many thousands of 
years may have elapsed since the sharp call of those whistles 
rallied the savage hunters when they were following the track of 
the reindeer or the horse ! 

Thus it will be seen that our cave-dwellers were tolerably well 
provided with the accoutrements for the chase, which evidently 
was their principal occupation. Their methods of fishing proba- 
bly consisted in harpooning and shooting ; but as the salmon was 
the chief object of their fishery, it is likely that the practice of 
spearing prevailed. At the time of the troglodytes the salmon 
came up from the sea as far as the Vezere, where it is now no 
longer to be found, owing to obstructions in the Dordogne below 
the confluence of the two rivers. Fishing with nets is not be- 
lieved to have been in use among the ancient people of this dis- 
trict, and it is doubtful whether they had boats. The river, says 
Dr. Broca, was then sufficiently narrow to allow the use of the 
harpoon from its banks. 



THE TROGLODYTES. 7l 

The contents of the rock -dwellings, it must be understood, 
exhibit no uniformity in the products of human industry, having 
been inhabited by the hunters for a very long period, during 
which they improved perceptibly in the mechanical arts. In the 
Moustier cave, the first that served as an abode of man, as we 
have stated, somewhat rude implements abounded, while articles 
of bone or reindeer horn were totally wanting. Kemains of the 
reindeer were less numerous in this cave than those of the horse 
and the aurochs. The reindeer, consequently, was not yet as fre- 
quent during its occupation as it afterward became in the valley 
of the Yezere. The station of Laugerie Haute has yielded supe- 
rior articles of flint, especially points of arrows and spears, while 
arrow or harpoon heads of reindeer horn were exceedingly scarce. 
The latter, again, have abundantly occurred at Laugerie Basse, La 
Madelaine, and Les Eyzies, supplanting, to a great extent, the 
articles of flint. 




HOLLOWED PEBBLE OF GRANITE (aBOUT ONE-THIRD OF NATURAL SIZe). — LES EYZIES, 

But we must return to the cave-dwellers. There is evidence 
that they were not insensible to the charms of personal decora- 
tion. They probably painted themselves, in the fashion of still 
existing savage tribes, with red color which they scraped off from 
pieces of soft red hematite. Such pieces, with the marks of scrap- 
ing, have been found in the caves; also pebbles of granite and oth- 
er stone, more or less hollowed on one side by grinding, which may 
have served for rubbing paint. It has been suggested that these 



72 



EARLY MAN IN EUBOPE. 



hollowed stones were mortars in wliicli the cave-men bruised 
grain; but they are almost too small to have been designed for 
that use. It remains doubtful whether the cave-men, as has been 
suggested, practiced tattooing. Some of their engravings on rein- 
deer horn, of which more will be said presently, represent the 
human hand and fore-arm, the latter being marked with regular 
designs, which have been thought to indicate tattooing, though 
they may be just as well referable to a part of the dress, or, 
what appears to us most probable, to some covering for guarding 
the left wrist and fore-arm against the severe rebound of the bow- 
string, similar contrivances being in vogue among the aboriginal 
archers of this country. 




OENAMENTS FROM THE DORDOGNE CAVES (NEARLY HALF SIZE). 

1. Oval plate of ivory, with holes for suspension (Cro-Magnon). 2. Perforated tooth of a wolf (La 
Madelaine). 3. Pierced recent marine shells (Cro-Magnon). 4. Pierced fossil marine shell 
(La Madelaine). 

The troglodytes employed for ornamental purposes shells, 
which they pierced with holes, in order to string them together. 
In the cave of Cro-Magnon were found about three hundred 
pierced shells (mostly Littorina littored)^ all belonging to still 
existing marine species, and probably obtained from the shores 
of the Atlantic Ocean. At other stations pierced fossil marine 
shells, doubtless derived from the Faluns or shell-marls of Ton- 
raine, have occurred. They wore also small oval plates of ivory 
pierced for suspension, and, perhaps as trophies of the chase or 



THE TBOaLODYTES. 73 

as amulets, perforated teeth of the wolf, urus, ibex, reindeer, 
horse, and other animals. 

Having given a brief account of the cave-men's industrial 
acquirements, we will now proceed to say something concerning 
their progress in art; for, strange as it appears, these people 
evinced, notwithstanding their otherwise low condition, a decided 
taste for drawing, and even for carving. Their delineations, traced 
with a pointed flint on horn, bone, ivory, or slate, consist occasional- 
ly in geometrical figures composed of parallel lines, rows of dots, 
lozenges, etc., but mostly in outlines of fishes or of quadrupeds, 
such as the horse, reindeer, stag, ibex, aurochs, mammoth, and 
others. These animals appear either single or in groups, and oft- 
en exhibit their characteristic features in a degree to render them 
recognizable almost at the first glance. Sometimes, however, the 
drawings resemble the first awkward attempts of children at rep- 
resenting animals, in which cases, of course, it remains doubtful 
what creature the primitive artist intended to delineate, whether 
an ox, a horse, a reindeer, or some other quadruped. Such repre- 
sentations have chiefly been found at the stations of Les Eyzies, 
Laugerie Basse, and La Madelaine. The figures of animals are 
often traced on the stems or beams of reindeer antlers, which are 




REPRESENTATIONS OF FISHES AND A HORSE ON A BATON OF REINDEER HORN (LENGTH, ONE 

foot). — LA MADELAINE. 

in such cases carefully worked, and pierced at the broader extrem- 
ity with round holes, varying in number from one to four. These 
remarkable objects can not have served as weapons, being too light 
for such an application; yet their frequent occurrence and uni- 
formity of type show that they possessed a conventional signifi- 
cance, and therefore have been regarded as badges of authority 



74 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

or distinction worn by tlie chiefs or prominent men of the tribe, 
like the batons which in our day indicate the dignity of a mar- 
shal. The number of holes in these decorated reindeer horns is 
thought to have been proportionate to the position occupied by 
the wearer. Supposing the somewhat hazardous interpretation 
to be correct, it would follow that the troglodytes already were 
sufficiently numerous to form a society in which the distinctions 
of rank were recognized. 

We present a number of illustrations which will enable the 
reader to judge of the cave-men's attainments in the fine arts. 
On a " baton " pierced with two holes will be seen representations 
of two fishes and a horse. The delineations of the last-named 
animal are very numerous, and indicate a stout, large-headed, and 
short-necked race, similar to that still living in Northern Europe. 
" Whoever," says Professor Carl Vogt, " has seen Icelandic horses 
running at large in the island recognizes here instantly their pro- 
totype ;" and the authors of the " Keliquise Aquitanicae " mention 
the horse as being so frequently represented at the Dordogne 
stations " as almost to lead one to suppose that the figure of this 
animal had been adopted as a social or national emblem by the 
people of this region." We further draw attention to the figure 
of a squatting (perhaps dying) stag, traced on stag horn, a materi- 
al very rarely found in the caves, but in this instance significant- 
ly selected by the ancient artist. This stag can be distinguished 
from the reindeer by the shape of its antlers. Another piece of 
reindeer horn shows on one side two heads of the aurochs, very 
buffalo-like, and on the other two heads of horses, and a man 
dragging, as it appears, a large eel behind him. The man's figure 
is rudely drawn, and not above an inch in length. He is in a 
state of perfect nudity, and carries a stick on his shoulder. A 
drawing on reindeer horn from Laugerie Basse (not among our 
illustrations) represents a tolerably well executed human figure, 
likewise nude, and in the act of throwing a dart at an aurochs. 




DELINEATIONS ON PIECES OF ANTLEK. — LA MADELAINE. 



1. Drawing of a fish on reindeer horn (natural size). 2. Eepresentation of a squatting stag on 
stag horn (natural size). 3. Running reindeer on reindeer horn (about three-fourths of natural 
size). 4. Piece of reindeer horn, showing on one side two heads of the aurochs, and on the 
other a human figure, an eel (?), two horse heads, and three rows of marks. The portions which 
would not be visible, owing to the roundness of the piece of horn, have been drawn beyond its 
contour (about three-fourths of natural size). 



THE TROGLODYTES. 77 

Among the carved articles, which are much rarer than the 
drawings, and generally inferior to the latter, may be mentioned 
a small dagger of reindeer horn, with a handle carved in the 
shape of a leaping reindeer, its fore-legs bent along the belly, and 
the antlers thrown backward and resting on the neck. We give 
the drawing of a broken baton of reindeer horn, carved at its 
extremity in imitation of an animal in which we fail to recognize 
a distinct species. This specimen was found by M. Massenat at 
Laugerie Basse. 




FRAGMENT OF A BATON OF REINDEER HORN TERMINATING IN AN ANIMAl's HEAD (NATURAL 

size). — LAUGERIE BASSE. 

But none of the representations afford as much interest as 
those of the mammoth, of which several were discovered, engraved 
as well as carved. The most remarkable of them, traced on a 
plate of ivory, was found among the debris of La Madelaine, in 
presence of M. Lartet, Dr. Falconer, and M. De Verneuil. The 
drawing in this specimen* is natural and bold, and the peculiar- 
ities of the mammoth are faithfully depicted. We see here the 
characteristic frontal formation, the long curved tusks, the pend- 
ent trunk, and, above all, the long mane of the neck, which is dis- 
tinctly indicated by many lines. Such a mane, it will be remem- 
bered, still adhered to the carcass of a mammoth found imbedded 
in ice at the mouth of the river Lena, in Siberia. All doubts must 

* See illustration at the beginning of this chapter. 



78 



EAELY MAN IN EUROPE. 



cease in view of sucli tangible evidence : none but a contemporary 
of the mammotli was able to trace the animal's likeness on ivory. 
" If the representation had been merely that of an elephant " says 
Sir Charles Lyell, " we might have conjectured that some African 
tribe migrating to the South of France had brought with them a 
drawing of the animal as it still survives in that country. But 
the characteristic wavy lines of the long hair of the mammoth al- 
low of no escape from the conclusion that the cave-men saw this 
animal in life, and that they were sufficiently advanced to make 
a tolerably faithful sketch of it." 




DRAWING OF THE ALPINE IBEX ON KBINDEEK ANTLER (NATURAL SIZb). — LATTGERIE BASSE. 

This artistic tendency among a people that occupied in other 
respects a very low position, and had not even discovered, as it 
appears, the art of forming vessels of clay, presents, indeed, a per- 
fect anomaly, considering that man in Europe at a much later pe- 
riod of the Stone Age, when he already devoted himself to agri- 
cultural pursuits, produced nothing in the line of art that can be 
compared with the drawings and carvings of those prehistoric 
people in the South of France. Yet, however praiseworthy their 
success in primitive industry and art may appear, they certainly 



TEE TROGLODYTES. 79 

can not be commended for their sense of cleanliness. Like the 
Eskimos, whom they resembled in many respects, they allowed 
the offal of animals to accumulate in and near their dwellings : a 
habit which certainly would have proved injurious to their health 
if the temperature of Middle Europe had not then been colder 
than at the present time. They chose, moreover, the sunniest 
positions for their habitations; and that they were not in the 
habit of exchanging them for cooler ones in summer is proved 
by the occurrence of reindeer horns and bones belonging to ani- 
mals of every age, which consequently were brought to the caves 
at all seasons of the year.* In fact, the mere presence of the 
reindeer, musk-ox, glutton, chamois, ibex, marmot, and other ani- 
mals which now either inhabit Northern regions or the cold 
heights of mountains, points to a rigid climate. In one word, Eu- 
rope was during the reindeer period still affected by those glacial 
influences to which we have alluded in a former chapter. 

The cave-dwellers of the Vezere were free from caitnibalism— 
a praise that can not indiscriminately be bestowed upon other 
savage European tribes belonging to that period, or even to later 
times. Indeed, human bones split apparently for the extraction 
of marrow, or roasted, have been discovered in various parts of 
Europe under circumstances which, to say the least, render it 
probable that the primitive inhabitants of certain districts in- 
dulged in that most repugnant practice. We merely mention 
the fact, not wishing to swell these pages with details of such un- 
pleasant nature. Yet, according to the statements of Herodotus, 
Strabo, and other ancient authors, anthropophagy was still prac- 
ticed in Europe during historical times, and this loathsome habit 
yet survives among many modern tribes, some of which doubtless 
enjoy a state of culture superior to that attained by the Euro- 

* " We conclude," says Dr. Broca, " that the troglodytes had a fixed 
place of abode; in other words, that they were not nomads." The same 
view was held by Lartet and Christy. 



80 EABLY MAN IN EVBOPE. 

pean of the Stone Age. As for this continent, we will remind 
the reader of the comparatively civilized Mexicans, among whom 
human sacrifices and cannibalism were prevailing to a horrible 
extent at the time when the Spaniards invaded and overthrew 
their empire. The early works on North America, too, give 
many instances of cannibalism as practiced by the aborigines of 
the present United States ; yet, strange enough, these facts are 
either not mentioned at all, or smoothed over by some of the 
modern authors treating of the former history and the ethnology 
of this country. 

The cave of Cro-Magnon, situated near the village of Les Ey- 
zies, and discovered in 1868 in the course of railroad labors, de- 
serves particular mention, for here were found the remains of four 
adult human individuals and of a child, undoubtedly referable to 
the cave -people. This locality has been carefully explored by 
M. Louis Lartet, son of the distinguished paleontologist, and de- 
scribed by him in the " Reliquiae Aquitanicse." The contents of 
the cave formed various beds, composed of charcoal, broken and 
burned bones, worked flint, flint cores, and implements of bone 
and horn. The layers were separated by accumulations of lime- 
stone rubbish and earth. From the character and succession of 
the deposits, it has been argued that the cave was at first merely 
resorted to at different times by hunters, but afterward used as 
a habitation, until the accumulated refuse and debris gradually 
raised the floor so as to leave but little room between it and the 
roof The cave was then abandoned by the living, but afterward 
used as a burial-place for their dead. The bones of the latter 
constituted, as we have said, the remains of five individuals, but 
only three skulls were sufficiently preserved for examination. 
They belonged to two men, one of them seemingly very old at 
the time of his death, and to an adult woman who must have 
died by violence, the skull showing in front a rather long and 
broad aperture, undoubtedly produced by a heavy blow with a 



TRE TROGLODYTES. 81 

flint weapon. Near the female skeleton were lying the remains 
of an infant, probably born before it had reached its full normal 
development. The woman's skull being partly repaired at the 
place of the fracture, physicians are of opinion that she survived 
some time the infliction of the wound, and prematurely gave 
birth to the child while in that condition. Are not these cir- 
cumstances suggestive of a tragedy that was enacted, with all its 
ingredients of jealousy and revenge, ages ago among the cave- 
dwellers of the Dordogne? The fractured female skull is not 
the only token of a rude mode of life observable on the human 
remains of Cro-Magnon, one of the thigh-bones of the old man be- 
ing marked with a hollow, evidently the result of an old wound 
which he may have received in the chase or in war. 

Dr. Paul Broca, of Paris, an authority of the highest order, 
has minutely examined these human remains, and established the 
physical characteristics of the cave -people as far as the rather 
scanty material permitted. The troglodytes of the Vezere were 
a tall race, surpassing in height the average Frenchmen of our 
time. The old man measured nearly six feet, and the woman 
was tall in proportion. These people possessed heavy frames 
and strong muscles, which have left their traces in the hollows 
and ridges of the bones. Their elongated skulls, though exhibit- 
ing some features characteristic of men who lead the life of sav- 
ages, were well formed and large, exceeding in capacity the mean 
of those of existing European nations. The cave-men had broad 
faces, and, to judge from the development of the maxillary bones, 
they must have been endowed with extraordinary powers of mas- 
tication. Their tihioe, or shin-bones, instead of being triangular 
in the section, like those of the present Europeans, are flattened, 
thus approaching the formation of the same bones in the gorilla. 
The like feature, the reader will remember, was noticed in the 
first human skeleton discovered by M. Riviere in one of the caves 
of Mentone, and this peculiarity may ultimately be found to be 

6 



82 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

characteristic of the primeval European in general.* Although 
the men of the Vezere Valley were a tall race, it must not be in- 
ferred that all Europeans of that period showed a similar phys- 
ical development ; on the contrary, the human remains found, for 
instance, in Belgian caves — we allude to later discoveries than 
those of Schmerling — indicate a people below the middle size, 
Europe probably being already in those remote times inhabited 
by various though scanty populations, differing from each other 
in stature as well as in other physical qualities. The troglodytes 
of the Vezere, it seems, represented a superior type of their time. 
" If they were in a savage state," says Broca, " it was because the 
surrounding conditions were unfavorable to their development. 
The conformation of their skulls shows that they were capable 
of culture, and, under favorable auspices, would have made great 
and rapid advances in civilization." 

Near the human remains in the Cro-Magnon cave lay about 
three hundred marine shells, of which mention was made, a few 
oval plates of ivory, perforated for suspension, several drilled 
teeth of animals, worked antlers of the reindeer, chipped flints, 
and a large block of gneiss, split and presenting a smooth surface. 
Among the animal remains of the cave may be mentioned those 
of a huge bear, of the mammoth (stump of a tusk only), cave-lion, 
wolf, fox, hare, spermophile or pouched marmot, wild boar, rein- 
deer, aurochs, and horse, the last-named animal being more nu- 
merous than either the reindeer or the aurochs. The cave of 
Cro-Magnon thus appears to have been resorted to at an earlier 
period than other stations of the Vezere Valley where the rein- 
deer predominates. 

We must now dismiss the troglodytes who once dwelt in the 
valley of the Vezere; but before doing so we will review their 

* The late Professor Jeffries Wyraan, of Cambridge, first noticed the same 
formation of the tibicB in skeletons exhumed from mounds in Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, Michigan, and Florida. 



THE TROGLODYTES. 



83 



condition of existence in a few words, in order to show in what 
respects they differed from later and more advanced men of the 
European Stone Age, of whom we shall speak in succeeding 
chapters. 

They subsisted by fishing and hunting, adding, as may be as- 
sumed, to their animal food such fruits as were spontaneously of- 
fered by nature. They had made no steps toward an agricultur- 
al state, and domesticated animals probably were entirely want- 
ing. As dwellings they used caves, overhanging rocks, and 
doubtless rude huts constructed of boughs, skins, or other mate- 
rials. Their tools and weapons were made, sometimes very skill- 
fully, of stone, horn, and bone. They employed only chipped 
stone implements, and were, as it appears, unacquainted with the 
art of making vessels of clay. Their dress consisted of skins 
sewed together with sinews. An artistic tendency which mani- 
fested itself in primitive attempts at drawing and carving must 
be regarded as a feature distinguishing them from the popula- 
tions of the later Stone Age. 




HEAD OF THE ANTILOPE SAIGA ENGKAVED ON BONE (nATUKAL SIZe). FKOM THE GROTTO OF 

GOUEDAN, NEAB MONTKBJEAU, HAUTE-GARONNE. 




ENTRANCE TO THE HOHLEFELS CAVE, WURTEMBERG. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE TROGLODYTES— Continued. 

The stations of the reindeer period in France are not confined 
to the valley of the Vezere, many others having been discovered 
in different parts of that country ; but as we can not attempt any 
thing like completeness in these pages, we have selected as the 
subject of the preceding chapter that group which is considered 
the most interesting on account of the important facts resulting 
from its exploration. A few words, however, must be devoted 
to the cave of Bruniquel, situated on the left bank of the river 
Aveyron, in the Department of the Tarn-et-Garonne, and not far 
from Montauban. This cave, explored by its owner, the Vicomte 
de Lastic, proved exceedingly rich in animal remains and manu- 
factured objects, which lay beneath a crust of stalagmite. Flint 
flakes, nuclei, and implements abounded, and about a hundred 



TRE TROGLODYTES. 85 

barbed harpoon -heads of horn were found, many of them orna- 
mented with designs of animals. There occurred also bone nee- 
dles and pins, and portions of implements made of the tusks of 
the mammoth. Pottery was totally wanting in this cave, as it 
was in those which have thus far been described. The people 
who lived in Southern France during the reindeer period appar- 
ently yet lacked the knowledge of forming vessels of clay. Re- 
mains of the reindeer were very numerous, representing, accord- 
ing to Professor Owen, more than a thousand individuals, while 
those of the horse amounted to a hundred. The fauna comprised, 
generally speaking, thirteen species of quadrupeds, six of them 
extinct; four of birds (sea- eagle, falcon, raven, partridge); one 
species of fish (salmon); and sixteen species of Atlantic and 
Mediterranean shells. The presence of the marine shells indi- 
cates that the troglodytes of Bruniquel sometimes visited both 
sea-boards, from which they were not very far distant, bringing 
home the shells they had gathered there. Lastly, there must be 
mentioned among the remains obtained from this station a num- 
ber of fragments of human skulls and other bones, which were 
found below the stalagmite of the cave. 

Finally, before leaving the soil of France, we must give a 
short account of the celebrated station near the village of Solutre, 
in the Department of the Saone-et-Loire. This remarkable abode 
of prehistoric man, which has been described by Messrs. De Ferry 
and Arcelin, is not a cave, but an uncultivated area of rising 
ground, which may with some propriety be called an ossuary, on 
account of the amazing quantity of bones here exhumed, among 
which those of the horse are most numerous, constituting the 
skeletons of at least two thousand individuals. Less frequent, 
but still quite abundant, are remains of the reindeer, bespeaking 
several hundred animals of this species. Their antlers often ap- 
pear in such an excellent state of preservation that they emit, 
when worked, the peculiar odor of fresh horn. There have fur- 



86 EABLT MAN IN EUROPE. 

ther been found remains of an elephant (probably the mam- 
moth), the aurochs, stag, and great lion. The ancient people who 
once occupied this place buried their dead in the ground, but, 
curiously enough, amidst the refuse of meals, on hearths covered 
with the still glowing ashes. Thus, at least, the mode of burial is 
described by the explorers, who disinterred more than fifty skel- 
etons, mostly belonging to aged persons and children. The hut 
in which the deceased used to dwell, they think, was destroyed, 
and served as his tomb. Some of the graves are composed of 
rough stone slabs, so placed as to form parallelograms. Accord- 
ing to Dr. Pruner-Bey, the skulls obtained from the ancient cem- 
etery of Solutre exhibit, on the whole, a type approaching the 
cranial formation of modern Laplanders and Finns. Well-made 
flint implements, said to resemble those of Laugerie Haute, in the 
Dordogne district, have been found in abundance; also worked 
bones, some fragments of pottery, and a headless stone figure of 
an animal with parted hoofs. To the north of this remarkable os- 
suary rises a steep rock, accessible only from one side. M. Ar- 
celin conjectures that the ancient hunters availed themselves of 
the peculiar formation of this rock for capturing the wild horses 
whose bones are so plentifully scattered through the ground at 
its base. They managed, he thinks, to drive the steeds up to the 
summit of the rock, forcing them to rush over the precipice. 
Other hunters, lying in w^ait at the foot of the rock, had but little 
difficulty in dispatching the injured animals. This horse-chasing 
at Solutre has been depicted in illustrated French works, and un- 
doubtedly presents a wild and drastic scene ; but who can decide 
whether the creation of the artist has any foundation in reality? 
There is certainly something anomalous about the station of So- 
lutre, and its exploration has given rise to animated discussions, 
and even to some literary skirmishes, among French savants. It 
is possible that the locality was resorted to at different times by 
tribes whose relics became commingled. This, of course, is mere- 



THE TROGLODYTES. 87 

ly a suggestion wliicli we throw out, and not a definite opinion. 
Future investigations may serve to clear up the doubtful points. 

The reindeer was not wanting in Germany during the period 
under consideration. As far as known, the range of this animal 
in Europe extended from the Baltic provinces of Russia to the 
foot of the Pyrenees; how far it wandered in a more southern 
direction has not yet fully been ascertained. Reindeer remains, 
especially antlers, have often occurred in Mecklenburg, where 
they were found in peat bogs, during the draining of ponds and 
the construction of high-roads, and in the course of labors of simi- 
lar nature. But these discoveries merely proved that the animal 
lived at one time in the North of Germany, and had no reference 
to its CO- existence with man.* Of late years, however, several 
stations, analogous to those of France, have been discovered in 
Wiirtemberg, and to Dr. Oscar Fraas, of Stuttgart, belongs the 
merit of having explored and described these ancient resorts of 
man. 

The station at Schussenried, near Ravensburg, in the above- 
named kingdom, is of great interest on account of its peculiar 
character, and therefore deserves a short notice in this chapter. 
In the year 1865, the owner of a mill in that neighborhood 
caused the digging of a long and deep trench, in order to supply 
his mill-race with water, having been deprived of that necessary 
element by the draining of a neighboring pond. The fosse cut 
through a mass of gravel, evidently brought there by glacial 
action, and forming at this place a depression or hollow, which 
contained a deposit of relics, presently to be described. This de- 

* Caesar's remarks concerning a one-horned animal living, as he says, in 
Germany have been thought to refer to the reindeer. His description, it is 
true, answers in some respects; yet it is not quite certain, after all, whether 
he really alludes to that animal. It is strange, at any rate, that no remains 
of the reindeer have been found in the oldest lacustrine pile-works of Switz- 
erland, which certainly belong to a much earlier time than the beginning of 
the Christian era. 



88 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

posit, it must be understood, occurred, as far as we can judge from 
the profile drawing before us, about twelve feet below the surface 
of the soil, being covered by a layer of calcareous tufa from four 
to five feet thick, upon which rested a bed of peat of still greater 
thickness. The hollow containing the relics, of course, was open 
at the time when men left there the traces of their presence, 
which were gradually buried by the deposits of carbonate of lime 
and vegetable matter just mentioned, to come to light again, ages 
afterward, almost in the shape of a geological formation. The 
relic bed consisted of broken bones of animals, charcoal, ashes, 
blackened hearth -stones, flint implements, and various manufact- 
ures of reindeer horn, the whole enveloped by fine sand, and, 
strange to say, by moss of a dark -brown color, and, owing to 
its constant contact with percolating water, in such an excellent 
state of preservation that Professor Schimper, of Strassburg, an 
authority on mosses, had no difficulty in recognizing the different 
species. None of them flourish any longer in the plains of Ger- 
many, but they are still found in Alpine regions near or above 
the snow- line, and in Norway, Lapland, Spitzbergen, Labrador, 
and Greenland. "There can be no doubt," says Fraas, "that 
mosses are much surer tests in determining the character of a cli- 
mate than the movable animal world, which is not fettered to the 
soil. Mosses are much more affected by changes in the temper- 
ature, by humidity, and other atmospheric agents, than quadru- 
peds, and the value of these vegetable remains in their bearing 
on the antiquity of the deposit should not be undervalued." 

The locality was, to all appearance, a camping- place where 
the ancient inhabitants cooked their meals and manufactured im- 
plements, and not merely a place set apart, as Dr. Fraas seems to 
think, to receive all sorts of refuse. Primitive man made no such 
nice distinctions, but left things where he dropped them. The 
presence of ashes, charcoal, and hearth-stones blackened by fire in- 
dicates that the spot was inhahited^ periodically at least, by the 



THE TROGLODYTES. 89 

ancient Suabian huntsmen. Perfectly in keeping with the North- 
ern character of the moss was the fauna of Schussenried. The 
reindeer evidently formed the chief object of the chase, being 
represented by several hundred individuals at this station. We 
further have to mention the glutton, and two species of fox no 
longer to be found in Germany, but confined to high latitudes. 
The presence of a small kind of ox, of a large-headed horse, the 
brown bear, wolf, and hare, would furnish no additional evidence 
of a severe climate ; while the wild swan, which was a favorite 
game of the Schussenried hunters, points again to such a state of 
temperature. This swan, which now visits Wlirtemberg merely 
as a bird of passage, and falls so rarely a victim to the sportsman 
that the killing of one is reported in the newspapers, seems to 
have been an inhabitant of that region during the period under 
notice. All these animals were eaten by the ancient people, who 
likewise broke the skulls and bones to secure their contents. 
This was done by means of round pebbles about the size of a fist, 
and bearing the marks of their use, which are also visible on the 
bones. Such primitive hammers occurred in great abundance. 
No remains of the dog were found, nor bones showing the traces 
of having been gnawed by that animal : these men probably pos- 
sessed no domesticated animals of any kind. Not a single frag- 
ment of pottery occurred among the rubbish, and hence it may 
be inferred that the reindeer hunters were yet unacquainted with 
the fabrication of earthenware. Like the troglodytes of the Dor- 
dogne, they made an extensive use of the antlers of the reindeer, 
fashioning them into weapons and tools which, being more or less 
similar to those already described, need not be specialized in this 
place. Even the pierced baton-like articles were present, though 
not embellished with designs of animals, like those of the cave- 
men of the Vezere. As for the numerous articles of flint found 
at the Schussenried station we can not make any statements, no 
drawings or precise descriptions of these objects being given in 



90 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



the account of Dr. Fraas, from wlaich our data are extracted. 
None of them, however, were polished. 

Dr. Fraas has explored several Suabian caves in which re- 
mains of extinct animals and of the reindeer occurred associated 
with objects wrought by man. We will give some account of 
the remarkable cave in the Hohlefels, or " hollow rock," in the 




IMPLEMENT MADE OF THE JAW OF A CAVE-BEAR (NEARLY HALF SIZe). — HOHLEFELS CAVE. 

romantic valley of the small river Ach, near Blaubeuren. This 
station is not a rock-shelter or grotto, but a real cave, about a 
hundred feet high, and, including some lateral galleries, nearly 
of the same length and width. The entrance, situated ten feet 
above the brook, is eighty feet long, and sufficiently high to ren- 
der access easy. The natural adit being somewhat crooked, no 
light penetrates into the cave, which therefore served as the ref- 
uge of a multitude of bats. These nocturnal creatures hung in 
clusters from the vaulted roof, and their whispering was the only 
sound heard in this lonely place. Years ago the cave had been 
visited at times by an old itinerant dealer in petrifacts, who 
hunted there for fossil bears' teeth, many of which are still pre- 
served in the collections of Wiirtemberg. He marked his speci- 
mens as being derived from a cave near Blaubeuren, yet he never 
told the purchasers in what cave he had found them, and died 
without revealing his secret. Long afterward the Hohlefels cave 



/ 



THE TROGLODYTES. 91 

was identified as the locality where the old man had obtained 
the fossil teeth. Though the floor and walls of the cave are al- 
ways wet, there is no trickling water that could cause the forma- 
tion of stalactite properly so called, thin layers of friable matter 
being the only calcareous deposits at this place. 

When Dr. Fraas commenced his operations in the fall of 
1870, he imagined that he was examining one of those ancient 
dens of bears so frequent in Germany, and flattered himself with 
the hope of soon finding the skulls of bears and their complete 
extremities. Though he exhumed at the outset bones of the 
reindeer and rhinoceros, he still clung to his first view, supposing 
these remains had been dragged into the cave by bears. Shortly 
afterward, however, he came, to his surprise, upon objects unmis- 
takably fashioned by man, such as pierced horse -teeth, worked 
reindeer horn, small pieces of pottery, and flint flakes ; and it now 
became evident that this cave was not merely a den of bears, 
but a primitive human habitation belonging to a period of re- 
motest antiquity. This circumstance heightened the importance 
of the exploration, which was now carried on with the greatest 
minuteness. After having removed a superficial layer of black 
mold intermingled with charcoal. Dr. Fraas reached a bed of 
wet yellow loam or clay, in which he caused a long and broad 
trench to be dug. This loam, which formed the " archaeological 
stratum," that is, the matrix containing relics, was examined to a 
depth of twelve or thirteen feet, beyond which it still reached 
farther downward, though yielding no longer remains in sufficient 
number to warrant further digging. 

The principal game of those Suabian hunters evidently was 
the bear, which furnished not only meat and marrow, but also in 
his dense fur the clothing that enabled his human destroyers to 
withstand the rigor of a low temperature. The remains of sever- 
al species of bears were found in this cave, but those of the cave- 
bear (Ursus spelcBus) occurred in greatest abundance. Their 



92 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



skulls had been broken for removing the brain, and hence Dr. 
Fraas was unable to obtain a single entire bear's skull in this 
cave. The Suabian troglodytes made a curious use of the lower 
jaws of these animals. They broke or cut them in two halves, 
and further modified them by the removal of some portions, thus 
producing implements which doubtless were employed like hatch- 
ets in skinning and dismembering the killed animals. Many of 
the bones found in the Hohlefels cave show the deep impressions 
left by the sharp corner teeth of these transformed bears' jaws. 
The occurrence of a single jaw thus prepared would furnish no 
evidence of such a use; but as many specimens trimmed in the 
same way have been found at this place, there can be no doubt 
as to their application as implements or as weapons, even if there 
were no corroboration in the fact that corresponding tools have 




REINDEER SKULL TRANSFORMED INTO A VESSEL (nEARLT HALF SIZe). — HOHLEFELS CAVE. 

occurred in French caves and elsewhere. Primitive man, restrict- 
ed as he was in his resources, necessarily hit, independently of 
place, upon the same expedients to satisfy his simple wants. 

The reindeer was represented in this cave by about sixty in- 
dividuals, mostly young animals. The men of the Hohlefels made 
its compact horns into points, apparently arrow-heads, and into 
piercing tools, serving as needles in the manufacture of skin gar- 
ments. These representatives of needles are not provided with 



THE TROGLODYTES. 93 

eyes like the well-formed articles of the same class in the caves 
of the Vezere, but simply consist of pointed rods scraped into 
shape with a sharp-edged flint. Keindeer skulls were sometimes 
converted by these cave-men into dippers or drinking -cups, the 
manufacture of which required but a series of blows with the 
hatchet of bear's jaw, by which the superfluous portions were 
removed. Yet, notwithstanding this rude labor, the primitive 
vessels produced by it are not badly made, showing that a certain 
sense of neatness is inherent in man, and manifests itself even in 
a very low stage of his existence. 

Next in frequency to the reindeer was the wild horse, a small 
race, with a large head and slender limbs, 
not unlike the pony of our days. The 
troglodytes used to pierce the incisors of 
this animal at the root, not by a regular 
drilling process, but in some other rough 
way, as shown in the annexed drawing. 
Drilled teeth of wild animals, it is well 
known, are often worn as trophies of the cavk (half size). 

chase by savage hunters, and in such cases i. Pierced tooth of a horse. 2. 

. T , . ft T T 1 Pierced jaw of a wild cat. 

are indicative 01 personal valor and suc- 
cess. In accordance with this principle, it would have been more 
becoming if the hunters of the Hohlefels cave, instead of wearing 
the teeth of the comparatively timid horse, had decorated them- 
selves with those of the great bear or the lion as tokens of their 
victories over these dangerous beasts. Yet no pierced teeth of 
such animals have been discovered in the cave, those of the horse 
being exclusively treated in this manner. Dr. Fraas therefore 
regards, with justness, as we think, the pierced horse -teeth as 
amulets, which were worn from some superstitious motive ; and 
he draws attention to the peculiar esteem in which, according to 
Tacitus, horses were held among the ancient Germans. "The 
well-known superstition," says this valued author, " which in oth- 




AMtJLETS FROM THE HOHLEFELS 



94 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

er countries consults the flight and notes of birds, is also estab- 
lished in Germany; but to receive intimation of future events 
from horses is the peculiar credulity of the country. For this 
purpose a number of milk-white steeds, unprofaned by mortal la- 
bor, are constantly maintained at the public expense, and placed 
to pasture in the religious groves. When occasion requires, they 
are harnessed to a sacred chariot, and the priest, accompanied by 
the king or chief of the state, attends to watch the motions and 
the neighing of the horses. No other mode of augury is received 
with such implicit faith by the people, the nobility, and the 
priesthood. The horses upon these solemn occasions are sup- 
posed to be the organs of the gods, and the priests their favored 
interpreters." Dr. Fraas also refers to the custom still prevailing 
among the German peasantry of nailing horseshoes to the doors 
of stables and barns as a protection against witchcraft.* The 
reader will remember what Lartet and Christy say concerning 
the frequency of delineations of the horse in the stations of the 
Dordogne, and the importance attached to that animal by the 
ancient hunters of the Aquitanian district. 

To judge from the number of remains of the bear, reindeer, 
and horse, these animals were chiefly hunted by the troglodytes, 
bones of other quadrupeds being far less frequent in the Hohle- 
fels cave, as, for instance, those of the urus and another bovine 
species of small size, perhaps the musk-ox, and of the mammoth, 
rhinoceros, wolf, fox, antelope, otter, and a kind of hog not yet 
identified. The cave-lion was represented by a much -injured 
lower jaw and a few other bones, which indicated an animal 
greatly superior in size to a full-grown African lion. " How this 
terrible cat succumbed to man," says Fraas, "is certainly a mys- 
tery." The other felines of this cave were the lynx and the wild 

* It would be hazardous, however, to infer from these superstitions that 
there existed any consanguinity between the Germans described by Tacitus 
and the troglodytes of Suabia. 



TEE TBOaLODYTES. 95 

cat. The first-named carnivore became extinct in Wiirtemberg 
not many years ago, the last one having been killed in 1846. 
The wild cat still survives in that kingdom. It is worthy of re- 
mark that a number of lower jaws of the wild cat found in the 
Hohlefels and other Suabian caves were pierced for suspension at 
the broader extremity, a circumstance illustrative, as in the case 
of the pierced horse-teeth, of some strange belief among the trog- 
lodytes. Remains of the hare are exceedingly scarce. Was this 
animal, owing to a superstitious prejudice, rejected as food by the 
ancient Suabian hunters, as it is even now by the Laplanders and 
other Northern populations, who are generally not very choice in 
the means of satisfying their hunger? We shall have occasion 
to refer again to this apparent repugnance to the hare among the 
primitive populations in other parts of Europe. The Mosaic law, 
it is well known, pronounced the hare unclean, and the ancient 
Britons, according to Caesar, abstained from eating its flesh. We 
draw particular attention to the absence of remains of the dog 
and of any other domestic animal in the deposit of the cave. The 
number of bones of wild swans, geese, and ducks indicates that 
these birds were much hunted by the cave-men, who, it seems, did 
not disdain even the smaller species of the feathered tribe. There 
occurred in the cave some human bones bearing the unmistaka- 
ble traces of having been gnawed by wild beasts, doubtless by 
bears. " Such distinct evidence of the work of the carnivores," 
says Dr. Fraas, " would lead to the conclusion that there were 
times when the bear was the sole master of this retreat, into 
which he dragged his victims — men, horses, oxen — in order to 
tear them or to gnaw their bones." Man, it may be assumed, 
often became the prey of those terrible beasts, among which he 
had to carry on his struggle for existence. 

Allusion having been made to the implements of reindeer 
horn which were found associated with the animal remains in 
this cave, little more need be said about them. The drawings 



96 EARLY MAN IN EUBOPE. 

given by Dr. Fraas represent, witli the exception of handle-shaped 
blunt articles, probably used in skinning animals, and of piercers, 
hardly any well-defined tools or weapons; and unless we adopt 
the view that the troglodytes possessed better implements, which 
they took care not to mingle with the rubbish, they must be con- 
sidered as rather deficient in mechanical skill, and far inferior in 
that respect to the reindeer hunters of the Dordogne. The stone 
articles found in the cave are mere flakes split from blocks of 
Jurassic flint occurring in the neighborhood, and in no way al- 
tered or brought to a definite shape by the process of chipping. 
They were evidently the simple tools employed for fashioning 
the articles of horn and bone. Though heavier stone implements 
have not been met in the cave, it is obvious that its ancient in- 
habitants could not have dispensed with them, and their absence 
may be merely accidental. Indeed, Dr. Fraas mentions among 
the discovered objects a reindeer skull from which the antlers 
had been detached by means of a sharp heavy stone, probably a 
hatchet, the strokes of which are plainly visible. It appears 
somewhat strange that these exceedingly primitive people were 
acquainted with the manufacture of pottery — a fact proved by 
small fragments of vessels which Dr. Fraas found commingled 
with the animal remains and objects shaped by the hand of man. 
According to his express statement, the digging operations were 
carried on in a part of the cave that never had been disturbed, 
and the small pieces of earthenware, consequently, must be con- 
sidered as coeval with the other relics. The sherds themselves, 
consisting of hardened clay mixed with sand, were too small for 
allowing any conjecture as to the form of the vessels when in a 
perfect state.* 

* It is no easy matter, indeed, to assign to this human habitation a place 
in the relative chronology of prehistoric times. The prevalence of the great 
bear over the reindeer, together with the exceedingly primitive character of 
the manufactures of bone, horn, and flint, points to a period anterior to the 



THE TROGLODYTES. 97 

Recent explorations in Poland have shown that the primitive 
inhabitants of that country were rude hunters and troglodytes 
like the tribes occupying, as we have seen, the more western dis- 
tricts of Europe. Not long ago, a cavern situated in a valley 
three leagues distant from Cracow was examined by Count Za- 
wisza, who discovered there numerous remains of animals, partly 
belonging to extinct species, and, in addition, the unmistakable 
evidences of the former presence of man. The cave, which occurs 
in Jurassic rock, is about forty-three feet wide and sixty-two deep, 
branching off at its farthest end into two lateral galleries, respect- 
ively forty-six and nineteen feet long. No water penetrates into 
the cave, where, consequently, stalagmitic formations are not met. 
Having dug through the upper part of the floor, which consist- 
ed of vegetable earth, mold, and dehris, the explorer came upon 
ashes (indicative of a hearth), flint implements, and split bones 
of the reindeer, cave-bear, horse, elk, and other quadrupeds. At 
a greater depth the flint implements were of larger size, and there 
appeared broken bones of the mammoth, together with molars 
and a small tusk of that animal ; also an amulet or ornament of 
ivory, and perforated teeth of the cave -bear, wolf, fox, stag, and 

occupation of the Dordogne caves, wbile the occurrence of pottery, however 
rude, would seem to indicate a later age. Yet the cave-bear was very com- 
mon in Germany, as shown by the immense number of bones of this animal 
in German caves, and may have survived longer in that country than in 
France. The presence or absence of pottery, on the other hand, affords, in 
our opinion, no absolute test of relative antiquity, considering that in those 
remote times, when men were not numerous, and doubtless divided into 
many tribes separated by great distances, a uniformity in mechanical ac- 
quirements can not be supposed to have existed. Thus, the cave-dwellers of 
Suabia, though possessing the art of pottery, may have lived in earlier times 
than the more advanced reindeer-hunters of the Vez^re, who yet lacked the 
knowledge of manufacturing vessels of clay. For the sake of illustration we 
will allude to the aboriginal tribes of this country, some of which practiced 
pottery, while others, although by no means deficient in mechanical skill, 
were unacquainted with the manufacture of earthen vessels, and used, as we 
have previously stated in a note, wooden troughs and skins in their stead. 

r 



98 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

elk. The accumulations forming the hearth reached to a depth 
of four feet, and exhibited no marked stratification. In the 
larger gallery were found many bones and horns of the reindeer 
and elk, a large tusk and other remains of the mammoth, and nu- 
merous instruments of flint, but no traces of a hearth. This place 
seems to have been used as a sort of ossuary by the troglodytes. 
The smaller gallery, which is very narrow and low, has not been 
carefully examined. 

During the excavations nearly two thousand chipped flint 
implements resembling those from the Dordogne caves were ob- 
tained, and the frequent occurrence of nuclei proved that instru- 
ments had been made in the cave. The flint employed by the 
troglodytes is identical with the kind occurring in large nodules 
in the Jurassic formations of the neighborhood. From the total 
absence of broken pottery in the rubbish of the cave it may be 
inferred that its ancient inhabitants were unacquainted with the 
manufacture of clay vessels. 

Among the animal remains obtained in this cave we mention 
first those of the mammoth, consisting of tusks, molars, several 
shin-bones, a pelvis, and various other portions of skeletons, 
which belonged to three individuals. Bones of the brown bear, 
aurochs, stag, roe, and wild boar were rare, but very numerous 
those of the cave-bear, reindeer, elk, and a horse of large size. 
The wolf, common fox, arctic fox, hare, badger, squirrel, mouse, 
goose, and a wading bird (represented by an artificially notched 
bone) complete the fauna of this primitive resort of man. The 
fact that the dog is not enumerated in the list can not surprise 
the reader, who is aware of the absence of its remains in corre- 
sponding cave deposits of Southern France and Wiirtemberg. 
This animal, as will be seen, became attached to man at a later 
period of the Stone Age. Dr. Fraas, to whom the animal re- 
mains of this locality had been submitted for examination by 
Count Zawisza, noticed that the Polish cave-men, like those of 



THE TROGLODYTES. 99 

Suabia, were in the habit of utilizing the lower jaw of the cave- 
bear by transforming it into a rude kind of hatchet, to be used 
for dismembering game, or as a weapon when occasion required. 
A few human bones were discovered among the rubbish ; but 
these, as well as the bones of the wild boar, roe, and goose, have, 
according to Dr. Fraas, a more recent appearance than the rest of 
the remains, and may have been brought to the cave by animals 
of prey, such as wolves and foxes, at a period subsequent to its 
occupation by the ancient hunters. 

A second cave, in the neighborhood of that just described, has 
been explored by Count Zawisza. This cave, too, had served as 
an abode of man, but apparently in later times, as indicated by 
its fauna — aurochs, horse, stag, wild boar, and roe — and by the 
presence of rude hand-made yet ornamented pottery, and of a few 
polished stone axes which lay among chipped implements of 
flint.* 

Quite extensive cave researches lately have been made in 
Belgium, at the expense of the Government, by M. Edward Du- 
pont, the worthy successor of Dr. Schmerling, whose important 
labors were brought to the reader's notice in a preceding chapter. 
M. Dupont's explorations comprised a great number of caverns 
situated in the valley of the river Lesse, a tributary of the Meuse, 
and more than half of them have furnished unmistakable traces 
of prehistoric man. These caves contain, in descending order, 
beds of brick-earth with angular pebbles, and stratified clay with 
coarse gravel, corresponding, according to M. Dupont, to similar, 
or rather the same, deposits in the valley, in which, he thinks, the 
water reached at times a height sufficient to wash its contents of 
earthy matter, clay, and gravel into the caves, often surprising 
the troglodytes, and compelling them to sudden flight. The old- 



* Some caves, there can be no doubt, were resorted to during neolithic 
times. 



100 EARLY MAN IN EUBOFE. 

er strata inclose remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave- 
bear, sometimes associated with rude flint hatchets, while the up- 
per layers are chiefly characterized by bones of the reindeer and 
knife-shaped flakes of flint. It remains to be seen whether the 
views of the Belgian savant will be generally adopted by Euro- 
pean geologists, some of whom, we are bound to say, hesitate to 
accept his conclusions. 

Want of space prevents us from giving a resume of M. Du- 
pont's discoveries, which would alone furnish sufficient material 
for an extensive chapter. A few remarks only can be offered to 
the reader. The Belgian reindeer hunters, like those of the Dor- 
dogne, inhabited caves, and manufactured their tools and weapons 
of flint, reindeer horn, and bone, yet without that degree of skill 
which is displayed in similar works of the French troglodytes. 
Their artistic attempts were of the most primitive character. 
Mention is made of an unintelligible drawing on a piece of rein- 
deer horn, and of a small exceedingly rude statuette representing 
a squatting human figure without arms, both found in a cave call- 
ed Trou Magrite. The occurrence of " batons " in some caves also 
has been recorded. These people subsisted, it seems, entirely by 
the chase, the horse, reindeer, chamois, goat, ox, boar, brown bear, 
fox, hare, water-rat, several kinds of birds, and some species of 
fish principally constituting their bill of fare. They disposed of 
the bones of their game in the manner now sufficiently familiar 
to the reader. In the cave of Chaleux, M. Dupont found the 
teeth of forty horses, and so many bones of this animal that a 
large wagon was required to remove them. He collected in the 
same cave twenty-two pounds of scorched or roasted bones of the 
common water-rat, which proves that these primitive people con- 
tented themselves with such small animals when nobler and 
more substantial game was not to be had. Many remains of 
man were discovered by M. Dupont in the course of his explora- 
tions ; so, for instance, in the Trou de la Naulette a lower human 



THE TROGLODYTES. 



101 




RESTORED EARTHEN VESSEL. — FROM 
THE TROU DU FRONTAL. 



jaw, supposed to belong to the age of the mammoth, and distin- 
guished by a deficient development of the chin, " exaggerating," 
according to M. Dupont, " those points in which the most inferior 
of the living races are distinguished from ourselves." 

The Trou du Frontal is supposed to have been a sepulchral 
place of the reindeer period. Here 
were found the bones of sixteen hu- 
man individuals, children and adults, 
but only two skulls in a sufficient 
state of preservation to allow compar- 
isons. These skulls are not elongated, 
but round, and one of them is remark- 
able for an extremely oblique position 
of the teeth — or prognathism — a feat- 
ure considered as characteristic of in- 
ferior races of man. The bones lay 
mingled together in a recess of the cave which was originally 
closed by a stone slab, like the burial grotto of Aurignac, and 
contained also a hearth, around which was scattered the refuse 
of meals, probably held in honor of the dead. In this cave were 
found the fragments of a rude clay vessel which, after its restora- 
tion, presents the form given in our drawing. It has a rounded 
bottom, and is therefore provided with pierced projections to fa- 
cilitate suspension. The occurrence of pottery, it should be stated, 
was not confined to the Trou du Frontal, other Belgian stations 
having likewise furnished fragments of earthen vessels. It is 
worthy of special mention that in this cave, and in others of the 
neighborhood, pierced fossil shells and minerals have occurred, 
which evidently were brought from considerable distances. The 
Ceritliium giganteum, for instance, a shell of large size, can not 
have been obtained from nearer localities than the environs of 
Rheims or Versailles, and much of the flint used as the material 
for tools is identical with a variety found in the Department of 



102 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

the Marne, in France. These facts indicate that a kind of traffic 
or exchange already existed in the earliest times among the bar- 
barous tribes of Europe. 

The latest, but certainly not the least interesting, discoveries 
relating to the reindeer epoch were made in Switzerland during 
the year 1874. Two caves in the neighborhood of Schaffhausen, 
one of them near the railroad station of Thayngen, had long been 
known and frequently visited, though never with the intention 
of exploring them, until two gentlemen, Messrs. Merk and Joos, 
were seized with the prevailing enthusiasm for cave researches, 
and dug into their floors in order to ascertain what they contain- 
ed. The exertions of these explorers were rewarded by the dis- 
covery of. two important stations of the reindeer period, analo- 
gous to those with which the reader is acquainted. The Thayn- 
gen cave, in particular, has yielded an abundance of animal re- 
mains and of manufactured objects, affording additional means for 
interpreting man's mode of life during the epoch w^hich we have 
been attempting to describe. It is undoubtedly one of the most 
interesting prehistoric retreats as yet discovered in any part of 
Europe. To judge from the number of remains of the reindeer 
and Alpine hare, these animals were chiefly hunted by the Swiss 
cave-men ; for, after the classification of the bones and teeth had 
been completed, the presence of at least five hundred hares was 
ascertained, while the reindeer remains pointed to two hundred 
and fifty individuals. The fauna of this locality further com- 
prises the horse, stag, ibex, chamois, wolf, several kinds of fox 
(among them the arctic fox), the glutton, brown bear, aurochs, 
mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-lion, the last-named three species 
indicated by rather scanty remains, which occurred in the lower 
part of the cave deposit. Remains of the cave -bear and cave- 
hyena are not enumerated. Among the birds white grouse, 
ducks, and swans predominate, and their bones (which contain no 
marrow) have been left entire ; the large bones of quadrupeds, 



THE TROGLODYTES. 



103 



however, invariably appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used 
for breaking them were lying among the refuse. It should be 
mentioned that the deposit in the cave of Thayngen containe(i no 
distinct traces of the dog or of other domestic animals, which, as 
the reader knows, are generally missing at the stations of the 
reindeer period. Had they not yet made their appearance in 
Europe at this epoch? However that may be, we shall meet 
them hereafter as the associates of the more advanced prehis- 
toric inhabitant of that part of the world. 




KM J.l ■5ENTATI0NS OF ANIMALS FROM THATNGEN, SWITZEELAND (NATURAL SIZE). 

1. Head of a musk-ox carved from reindeer horn. 2 and 3. Drawings of a fox and a bear. 

In technical ability the troglodytes of Thayngen were equal, 
to say the least, to the reindeer hunters who have left their traces 
in the caves and rock-shelters of Southern France. Like the lat- 
ter, they employed the antlers of the reindeer as the material of 
which they manufactured their needles, piercers, and arrow-heads, 
and these tools and weapons are said to be worked with an as- 
tonishing degree of precision. The implements for making them 
consisted, as in other corresponding localities, of flint flakes, many 



104 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

of which were found imbedded in the floor of the cave. Here, 
too, were met specimens of prehistoric art in the shape of repre- 
sentations of animals drawn on reindeer horn, bone, and small 
plates of brown coal, and even carvings were not wanting. 
Among the latter should be mentioned the head of a musk-ox, 
somewhat clumsily executed, it must be admitted, yet recogniza- 
ble by the peculiar position of the horns. The head, of which 
we give a drawing, appears to have originally belonged to an en- 
tire figure of the animal. Among the osseous remains of the 
cave, however, none of the musk-ox have occurred, and their ab- 
sence may perhaps be accounted for by the scarcity of the spe- 
cies. Far better are the engraved delineations of animals, as, for 
instance, several drawings of the horse, which rival, according to 
Professor Rtitimeyer, similar designs seen in illustrated works 
of our time. They are, indeed, minutely and correctly drawn, 
showing an equine type with erect mane, shaggy fur, and slender 
limbs. We further reproduce here two drawings on bone, repre- 
senting a fox and a bear. Both are excellent specimens in their 
way, displaying a close observation of nature, and even a certain 
humor, which is more particularly expressed in the attitude and 
sly face of the fox. But the most notable object of this class dis- 
covered in the Thayngen cave is a delineation on a piece of rein- 
deer horn, representing a reindeer in the act of browsing. This 
drawing betokens no small degree of skill, and undoubtedly 
ranks, for the present, as the best of its kind transmitted to us 
from those remote times. The designer evidently was a Land- 
seer among the troglodytes. We place a copy of the drawing be- 
fore the reader, who has become acquainted with the most re- 
markable productions of a similar character derived from the sta- 
tions of the Dordogne, and is thus enabled to make comparisons. 
The representation, it will be seen at once, is not a correct one in 
an artistic sense, but nevertheless an admirable work, when the 
circumstances under which it originated are taken into considera- 



THE TROGLODYTES. 



105 



tion. The original tracing, of course, follows the curvature of the 
reindeer horn, while our copy represents the drawing as though 
it had been executed on a plain surface. 

An artistic tendency, it thus becomes manifest, was not con- 
fined to the troglodytes of Southern France, but was shared by 
the primitive people who lived under analogous conditions of 
existence in the north of the present Helvetian republic. The 
question, however, whether such a peculiar similarity of taste also 
implies an affinity of race can not be answered before more con- 
vincing proofs have come to light. 




FIGURE OP A BROWSING REINDEER ENGRAVED ON REINDEER HORN (NATURAL SIZe). — FROM 

THATNGEN, SWITZERLAND. 




IDEAL KEPRESENTATION OF A SWISS LAKE-VILLAGE. 



CHAPTER V. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 

The later or neolithic period of tlie European Stone Age, 
upon wliich we are now entering, marks a great advance in the 
industrial acquirements and social condition of prehistoric man 
— a change due in a great measure to the altered climate of 
Europe, which had gradually lost its prevailing severe character, 
and given place to a more steady temperature approaching that 
of our time. Such a change, however slow in its progress, could 
not fail to exert its influence upon the organic world, and we 
therefore meet at this period a fauna of essentially modified 
character. The mammoth, rhinoceros, Irish deer, great bear, lion, 
and hyena had worked out their mission in Europe; while the 
musk-ox, reindeer, chamois, ibex, and other quadrupeds adapted 



EITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 107 

to a rigid temperature had either migrated northward or chosen 
the cold heights of mountains as their abodes. On the other 
hand, several species of animals, some of them, perhaps, derived 
from distant countries, appear as the domesticated associates of 
man, who was now no longer a mere savage hunter, but had be- 
come, in some districts at least, a tiller of the soil and a consumer 
of vegetable food, though still applying himself to the chase and 
to fishing. During the paleolithic ages, of which an account was 
given in the preceding chapters, man made his stone tools and 
weapons almost exclusively of flint, reducing them to the intend- 
ed shape by chipping alone, not having learned yet to improve 
their form and efficiency by the process of grinding. It was 
quite different in the times which we are now considering. The 
stone implements of the neolithic period exhibit a greater variety 
of well-defined forms, and are no longer exclusively made of flint, 
but also of other kinds of stone, such as diorite, serpentine, basalt, 
quartzite, and similar suitable materials. Many are brought into 
their final shapes by grinding and polishing — a method which 
characterizes the later Stone Age, as we have stated in our first 
chapter. Neolithic axes and chisels are mostly polished. Yet 
the practice of chipping flint into arrow and spear heads, knives, 
scrapers, etc., had by no means fallen into disuse, the articles pro- 
duced in this way being, on the contrary, not only very numer- 
ous, but also of superior workmanship, insomuch that flint -chip- 
ping may be said to have assumed in this period almost the 
character of an art. The manufacture of clay vessels was gen- 
eral during this epoch. 

Were the men of neolithic times the descendants of the con- 
temporaries of the mammoth, the great bear, and the reindeer, 
or immigrants from abroad — perhaps from Asia — who brought 
with them new arts and the animals they had tamed in their 
old homes ? Both views have their supporters. There certainly 
seems to be a gap between paleolithic and neolithic implements, 



108 EARLY MAN IN EUBOFE. 

the gradual transition from one class to the other not being as 
yet represented with sufficient distinctness by intermediate forms. 
Prehistoric archseology, however, is almost daily enriched with 
new discoveries, and thus we may hope that this interesting 
question ultimately will be decided, either in one direction or the 
other. 

On the indented coasts of the Danish islands of Seeland, 
Fiinen, Moen, and Samsoe, and along the fjords of the Peninsula 
of Jutland, there occur, mostly in the immediate neighborhood 
of the sea, considerable accumulations of shells, which were for- 
merly supposed to have been deposited by the sea at a time 
when the level of the land was lower than at present. It wa,s 
noticed, however, that the shell -heaps showed no trace of the 
stratification which always characterizes marine deposits, and 
that they, instead of inclosing shells of mollusks of every age, 
contained merely those of full-grown specimens, which belonged, 
moreover, to a limited number of edible species. Upon further 
examination there were found among the shells the broken bones 
of different species of wild quadrupeds and birds, and the re- 
mains of fishes; also implements of flint, horn, and bone, fragments 
of a rude kind of pottery, charcoal, and ashes, but no objects 
of metal whatever. The artificial origin of these accumulations 
being now established, they were recognized as the amassed re- 
mains of the repasts of a population that dwelt in former ages 
on the shores of the Baltic, pursuing the chase, but chiefly the 
capture of fish and shell-fish. The Danes signify shell-heaps of 
this description as KjoMenmoddings, a word meaning " kitchen 
refuse" in literal translation; but the term IcitcJien- middens is 
often employed in English, midden being a name still used in 
the North of England to designate a refuse-heap. More than 
fifty kitchen-middens have been examined conjointly by Messrs. 
Forchhammer, Steenstrup, and Worsaae, distinguished respective- 
ly for their proficiency in the departments of geology, natural 



KITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 109 

history, and archseology ; and tlie results of tlieir investigations, 
contained in several reports addressed to tlie Academy of Sciences 
of Copenhagen, have added in a great measure to our knowledge 
of prehistoric man in the North of Europe. 

The thickness of the shell -beds, it was ascertained, varies 
from three to five feet, though they reach in s^me places to a 
height of ten feet. Their length sometimes amounts to a thou- 
sand feet, and they vary in width, though not exceeding two 
hundred feet. One of the largest Kjokkenmoddings is that of 
Meilgaard, in the north-east of Jutland. Very extensive accumu- 
lations sometimes present an undulating surface, the refuse hav- 
ing been heaped up more abundantly in some points than in 
others; and occasionally the heaps surround an irregular free 
space, where the coast people doubtless had built their huts, 
which certainly were of the most primitive description, probably 
consisting of a number of poles stuck in the ground and covered 
with skins. The oyster is the species of shell -fish occurring 
most abundantly in the kitchen -middens, and constituting some- 
times almost entirely their contents. Next follow, in the order 
of their frequency, the cockle, mussel, and periwinkle, or Litto- 
rina. In regard to the oyster, it is worthy of remark that this 
bivalve has disappeared from the neighborhood of the kitchen- 
middens, being now confined to a few localities on the Cattegat. 
Yet even there it never attains the large size characterizing the 
oysters of the ancient shell- beds. The cockles and periwinkles, 
too, though still living in the same waters, are much smaller than 
those of ancient times. These changes have been attributed to 
a diminution of the saline matter in the water of the Baltic Sea. 
Among the remains of fishes, those of the herring, cod-fish, floun- 
der, and eel are quite frequent, and their presence proves that 
the coast people ventured upon the open sea, doubtless in small 
boats formed of trunks of trees, and hollowed by the application 
of fire. Remains of aquatic birds, such as wild ducks, geese, and 



110 EABLY MAN IN EVBOPE. 

swans, are often met. The great penguin or auk {Alca impen- 
nis), supposed to be now entirely extinct, and the capercailzie, or 
mountain cock {Tetrao urogallus), a bird no longer found in 
Denmark, though still inhabiting the forests of Germany, deserve 
special mention. The last-named bird feeds in spring chiefly on 
the buds of the pine, a kind of tree not growing naturally at 
present in Denmark, but very common during the Stone Age, as 
has been ascertained by the examination of Danish peat bogs. 
Thus it would seem that the disappearance of the pine from 
Denmark caused the capercailzie to leave that country. Bones 
of the domestic fowl, the stork, sparrow, and swallow, are totally 
wanting in the kitchen-middens. The mammals that have there 
left their remains are the stag, roe, wild boar, urus, beaver, seal, 
wolf, fox, lynx, wild cat, marten, otter, hedgehog, water-rat, and 
dog. Next to the mollusks, the stag, roe, and wild boar evident- 
ly constituted the principal food of the coast people. The dog, 
which is represented by a small race, was their only domesticated 
animal, but also eaten by them in the fashion of our Indians, 
who keep dogs as companions, and use them as food, especially 
on solemn occasions. The urus, it will be remembered, has be- 
come extinct, and the beaver no longer inhabits Denmark. No 
bones of the hare have been found in the kitchen-middens, per- 
haps for the reason that those ancient people were prevented by 
superstitious motives, like the Laplanders of our day, from eating 
that animal. The reindeer and elk are thus far missing in the 
refuse ■ heaps, though their bones have been discovered among 
other remains of the Stone Age in Denmark. The marrow-bones 
of the ruminants and wild boars are broken or split for extract- 
ing their contents, and they often exhibit the cuts produced by 
flint implements. When the bones were thrown away, the dogs 
made a second meal of them, eating the smaller ones, especially 
bird-bones, and gnawing off the soft portions from those of larger 
size. Professor Steenstrup has made interesting experiments to 



KITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 



Ill 



elucidate that fact. Locking up some dogs, and restricting them 
to a bone diet, he ascertained that all the bones rejected by the 
dogs were the same that are present in the kitchen -middens, 
while the bones or portions of bones devoured by them are cor- 
respondingly missing there. 






IMPLEMENTS 3?ROM THE KJOKKENMODDING AT MEILGAARD. 

1. Pierced hammer or adze of stag horn (one-third of natural size). 2, Flint flake (half size). 

3. Shell-mound axe (half size). 

Kude hearths consisting of a kind of pavement of pebbles, not 
exceeding the size of a man's fist, have been discovered in the ref- 
use-heaps. These fire-places are more or less circular, only a few 
feet in diameter, and surrounded with charcoal and ashes. The 
coast people manufactured a kind of very primitive pottery, frag- 
ments of which are found commingled with the shells. Their 
vessels were formed by hand, the potter's wheel being then, and 
probably much later, an apparatus unknown in Europe. The 
clay is always mixed with coarse sand, produced by the tritura- 
tion of stones, and evidently added for the purpose of preventing 
the cracking of the vessels while in the fire. This device was 
well known to the aborigines of this country, who mixed the clay 
with gross-grained sand, but often employed pounded shells in its 



112 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

stead. The Kjokkenmoddings have yielded a number of awls, 
chisels, and other tools made of horn and bone, and in great 
abundance chipped flint implements, such as flakes, piercers, sling- 
stones, spear -heads, and axes of a peculiar shape, and therefore 
called "shell -mound axes." Yet nearly all these objects are of 
rude workmanship, and in no way comparable to the excellent 
weapons and tools occurring, as will be seen hereafter, so fre- 
quently in other parts of Denmark. It would be doubtful, there- 
fore, whether the kitchen -middens belong to the neolithic or to 
an earlier period, if it were not for the fact that, together with 
the many uncouth articles, a few well-finished arrow and spear 
heads, and even some polished implements, have been found. 
The manufacture of articles of this better class required much la- 
bor, and the people who have left the kitchen-middens as their 
memorials doubtless took care not to lose them among the refuse, 
while they paid less attention to the rude implements, which 
could be replaced by new ones without much trouble. The 
fauna of the kitchen-middens, moreover, is not that of paleolithic 
times, being composed of animals still living in Europe, excepting 
the urus, which, as we have seen, became extinct during the his- 
torical period. The great auk, a bird incapable of flying, being 
provided with mere apologies for wings, is said to have been to- 
tally exterminated everywhere by man, though it is not altogether 
improbable that it still survives in lonely localities beyond the 
reach of human cruelty.* Under these circumstances, we may be 
justified in referring for the present the Kjokkenmoddings to the 
early part of the neolithic period. 

The coast people certainly led a very rude life, being unac- 
quainted with agriculture, and compelled to subsist entirely on 
the spoils of the sea and the forest. It is not quite certain 

* Specimens of this bird are still preserved in ornithological collections. 
According to Professor Vogt, the great auk was found in Iceland, its last re- 
treat, until the year 1842, after which it became extinct. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 113 

whether they inhabited the sea-board only in summer or during 
the whole year, though the character of the bones and antlers, 
which belong to animals of different ages, would favor the view 
that they lived there through successive seasons. Notwithstand- 
ing their savage state, they were certainly free from the practice 
of cannibalism, no human bones having been found among the 
refuse. It is not known how they disposed of their dead, and 
hence no human remains that can with certainty be ascribed to 
the coast people are extant. From some Danish tumuli, how- 
ever, skulls have been obtained which are supposed to belong to 
the age of the kitchen-middens. These skulls are of small size 
and round, like those of the Laplanders, but differing from them 
by a more retreating forehead and very prominent ridges above 
the eyes. 

Kitchen-middens have been discovered in other parts of Eu- 
rope, though nowhere in such number and so well characterized 
as in Denmark ; and we may further state that they are not con- 
fined to Europe, but occur also along the coasts of other conti- 
nents. In America, for instance, similar artificial shell deposits 
are frequent, and have been observed from Newfoundland to 
Tierra del Fuego, and on various points of the Pacific shore. 
Coast tribes, deriving their subsistence chiefly from the sea, neces- 
sarily will leave everywhere the tokens of their presence. But 
we must hasten to pass over to another subject. 

Alonzo de Ojeda, a Spanish nobleman, who had been a com- 
panion of Columbus on his second expedition, undertook in 1499 
independently a voyage for the purpose of exploring the north- 
ern coast of South America. He was accompanied by the Flor- 
entine Amerigo Vespucci, who has left an account of this voyage, 
from which we quote the following passage, in the words of 
Washington Irving : " Proceeding along the coast, they arrived at 
a vast deep gulf, resembling a tranquil lake, entering which, they 
beheld on the eastern side a village, the construction of which 

8 



114 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

struck them with surprise. It consisted of twenty large houses., 
shaped like bells, and built on piles driven into the bottom of 
the lake, which in this part was limpid and of but little depth. 
Each house was provided with a draw-bridge and with canoes, 
by which the communication was carried on. From this resem- 
blance to the Italian city, Ojeda gave the bay the name of the 
Gulf of Venice, and it is called at the present day Venezuela, or 
Little Venice. The Indian name was Coquibacoa." We can 
well imagine the surprise of the adventuresome voyager, whose 
baptismal name is perpetuated in that of our vast continent, at 
beholding this curious Indian village built on .piles in the water ; 
yet he certainly did not dream that the remains of similarly con- 
structed habitations of men who lived tens of centuries ago lay 
hidden in the bosom of Swiss and Italian lakes. In fact, no 
one thought of lacustrine settlements until the year 1854, when 
their traces were first recognized in the Lake of Zurich, though 
the existence of piles in the lakes of Switzerland was well known 
to fishermen, whose nets often had been caught and damaged 
by them. There had also occasionally been found in the mud of 
the lakes pieces of wrought deer horn, fragments of clay vessels, 
and objects of stone and bronze, which were looked at with great 
curiosity, and elicited all sorts of comments, until finally the chil- 
dren took hold of them and used them as toys. In the winter 
months of 1854, the water in the Swiss lakes sunk much below 
its ordinary level, laying bare large tracts of land along their 
shores, and thus affording the people of the neighborhood a rare 
chance for adding to their lands by building walls near the wa- 
ter's edge. So it happened at Meilen, on the Lake of Zurich. 
Some persons, desirous of enlarging their gardens, erected squares 
of walls far into the bed of the lake, raising the area within the 
walls with loam, which was dug from the denuded lake bottom. 
During these labors the workmen came upon a layer of black 
mold, from which they extracted pieces of a rude kind of pot- 



KITCREN-MIiyDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 115 

tery, articles of stone, bone, and horn ; also hazel-nuts and other 
vegetable remains. As the work progressed there appeared nu- 
merous wooden posts, from eight to twelve inches thick, which 
were standing in rows only a foot or a foot and a half apart from 
each other, and so soft that the spade cut through them with 
great ease. The teacher of the place collected the various objects 
found in the black layer, and notified the Antiquarian Society of 
Zurich of their discovery. Some members of that society, among 
them its president. Dr. Ferdinand Keller, proceeded without delay 
to Meilen, in order to inspect the relics and the place where they 
had been exhumed ; and Dr. Keller, being an antiquary of note, 
and well acquainted with prehistoric manufactures, recognized 
the various articles at once as axes, chisels, whetstones, net-sink- 
ers, grain -crushers, parts of weapons, and cooking -vessels of the 
ancient inhabitants of this locality. The relics, it was ascertain- ' 
ed, were most abundant in the immediate neighborhood of the 
piles, while they became less frequent, and finally disappeared, at 
a greater distance from them, a fact indicative of a connection be- 
tween the piles and the antique objects of human workmanship; 
and Dr. Keller, summing up his observations, concluded that the 
piles had served as the supports of platforms on which the an- 
cient people erected their dwellings, thus living above the sur- 
face of the water, and at some distance from the shore, with which 
they communicated by means of a narrow bridge. To Dr. Kel- 
ler, therefore, belongs the merit of having first pointed out the 
true character of lacustrine remains, and of having inaugurated a 
series of discoveries hardly surpassed in importance by any yet 
made in the domain of prehistoric archaeology. It was now re- 
membered that, in times not long past, fishermen had lived in 
cabins built in the Limmat, a small river issuing from the Lake 
of Zurich. The works of modern travelers were found to contain 
accounts of certain Asiatic and Polynesian islanders who still in- 
habit buildings erected on piles in the water, thus perpetuating a 



116 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

custom prevailing in times beyond record and tradition in the 
lake regions of Switzerland ; and a passage in Herodotus, relating 
to the Paeonians, a tribe who dwelt, 520 years before the Chris- 
tian era, on Lake Prasias, in Thrace (modern Roumelia), was now 
often quoted as illustrative of the ancient Helvetian mode of life. 
According to the historian just mentioned, the Pseonians lived 
upon the lake in dwellings erected on platforms which were sup- 
ported by piles and connected with the land by narrow bridges. 
They were polygamists, and a law directed that for each wife 
three piles should be added to the structure. There was a hut 
for every family, with a trap-door giving access to the lake be- 
neath. The small children were tied by the foot with a string, 
lest they should fall into the water. The lake-people fed their 
horses and other beasts with fish, of which there was an aston- 
ishing abundance in the lake. 

When the results of Dr. Keller's investigations became known 
by his writings, a general search for similar memorials of former 
times was made in the many lakes of the republic, and such un- 
expected success rewarded the efforts of the explorers that up 
to this date, twenty years after the discovery at Meilen, the ex- 
istence of more than two hundred lake settlements in Switzerland 
and a part of Germany bordering on the Lake of Constance has 
been ascertained. In these researches the fishermen, who knew 
well the shallow places of the lakes where piles occurred, proved 
excellent guides. Remains of ancient lacustrine settlements, it 
should be stated, are by no means confined to Switzerland and 
a small portion of Southern Germany, but also have been discov- 
ered in the Lombardian lakes, in Savoy, Mecklenburg, Bavaria, 
Austria, and Prussia, and in several districts of France, even at 
the foot of the Pyrenees. Hence it is evident that the habit of 
erecting dwellings in lakes was at one period widely spread over 
Europe. Nowhere, however, have these remains been found in 
greater number than in Switzerland, a country abounding in 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. \\^ 

lakes whicli naturally invited to such aquatic colonies. In fact, 
the shore-lines of most of the Helvetian lakes are marked with 
the traces of these ancient habitations. We mention in this 
connection the lakes of NeuchAtel, Greneva, Constance, Bienne, 
Morat, Zug, Zurich, Sempach, Pfaffikon (canton of Zurich), Moos- 
seedorf (near Berne), Nussbaumen (canton of Thurgau), Inkwyl 
(near Soleure), and Wauwyl (canton of Lucerne). In the Lake 
of Neuchatel forty -six settlements have been counted; in the 
Lake of Constance, thirty-two; in that of Geneva, twenty-four; 
in the Lake of Bienne, twenty- one, etc.; and their number is 
constantly increasing by the discovery of hitherto unknown 
sites. 

The oldest lake settlements date back to the neolithic peri- 
od, when, as the reader knows, only implements of chipped and 
polished stone, of bone, horn, and wood, were in use. The pile- 
work at the bank of Lake Pfaffikon, near Robenhausen, for in- 
stance, has not yielded any articles of bronze; and at Meilen only 
a bronze celt (or hatchet) and a bracelet of the same alloy were 
found, which seems to indicate that this colony still flourished 
at the time when bronze was introduced. There are many other 
lake settlements in which, among hundreds of articles of stone, 
horn, bone, or wood, not the slightest trace of metal has occurred. 
These stations of the pure Stone Age are chiefly found in East- 
ern Switzerland. Most of those in the western lakes of the 
Helvetian republic have furnished articles both of stone and of 
bronze, the latter of great variety and exquisite workmanship ;* 
and in some stations tools and weapons of iron, thought to be 
Gallic in character, and even coins and other objects of Roman 
origin, have come to light. It thus appears that these lacustrine 
colonies existed for a very long period, which was characterized 



* They chiefly consist of leaf-shaped swords, daggers, celts, spear and ar- 
row heads, knives, sickles, fish-hooks, pins, rings, and bracelets. 



118 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

by remarkable changes in the condition of man, whose progress, 
whatever its causes may have been, can be traced in an uninter- 
rupted line. Though some of the settlements are supposed to 
have been abandoned toward the beginning of the Christian era, 
it is notable that they are not mentioned by Csesar, who had be- 
come acquainted with the Helvetians by his wars, nor by Pliny, 
an author noted for his propensity to dwell on details. No ac- 
count, no tradition, alludes to these peculiar structures. 

"At first glance," says Professor Desor,* "the idea may seem 
strange, if not absurd, that men should have established them- 
selves on the water instead of pitching their tents or building 
their cabins on terra Jh'ma^ but closer reflection will enable us 
to comprehend that at the origin of the lacustrine period, at an 
epoch when the soil of Switzerland was covered with forests and 
the borders of the lakes probably occupied by marshes, these 
lacustrine abodes may have offered to their inhabitants a more 
secure asylum against the ambush of enemies and the attack of 
savage animals." 

The following remarks, of course, relate exclusively to the pile 
buildings of the Stone Age, those of later periods not coming 
within the scope of the subject treated in these pages. Lacus- 
trine dwellings were built in shallow places, and in no case very 
far from the shore, simply because the greater depth of the water 
farther in the lake rendered the erection of those structures dif- 
ficult, if not impossible. The upright piles were mostly whole 
stems of trees growing in the neighborhood (oak, beech, fir, pine, 
ash, or birch), usually from four to eight inches in diameter, and 
sharpened at the lower end either by fire or the stone hatchet. 
Heavy wooden mallets, a number of which have been found, 
doubtless served to drive them into the bottom of the lake. The 



* Author of an excellent work on the lacustrine constructions of the Lake 
of Neuchatel. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 119 

piles were evidently placed according to a regularly arranged 
plan, but in most cases it is impossible to make out the order 
of their distribution. "They appear above the lake bottom," 
says Keller, " like the remains of a forest snapped ojff by a storm 
or destroyed by an avalanche." Upon these piles, brought to 
a level several feet above the water, and strengthened by cross- 
timbers, rested the platform, often merely composed of unbarked 
stems lying parallel one to another, but sometimes consisting of 
boards two inches thick, which were fastened with wooden pegs 
into the frame -work, thus forming an even and solid floor. The 
number of piles, of course, varied according to the extent of the 
settlements, some of which may have been enlarged from time 
to time, when the increasing population rendered the erection 
of new huts necessary. The lacustrine colony near the Gerifian 
village of Wangen, on the Untersee, the north-western expanse 
of the Lake of Constance, contained from forty to fifty thousand 
posts, and formed a parallelogram seven hundred paces long 
and one hundred and twenty broad; but in other lake villages 
— at Robenhausen, for instance — probably twice as many piles 
were required. When the bottom of the lake was rocky, or af- 
forded no suflScient hold to the stakes, stones were heaped up 
between and around them, in order to consolidate the erection. 
These stones had to be brought in boats, consisting of hollowed 
trees, to the designed spot ; indeed, a boat filled with stones is 
still to be seen near St. Peter's Island in the Lake of Bienne, 
where it sunk to the bottom, perhaps in consequence of being 
overloaded. The outer rows of piles were sometimes interwoven 
with a kind of wattle- work, made of twigs, for the purpose of 
preventing the splashing of the water under the platform, or, 
perhaps, for protecting the piles from being injured by floating 
wood. A narrow bridge, likewise a pile- construction, connected 
the settlement with the shore. Remains of such bridges, from 
twenty to several hundred feet long, actually have been discov- 



120 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

ered. The huts erected on the platforms, it has been ascertained, 
were mostly of a rectangular shape, and consisted of a wooden 
frame -work wattled with rods or twigs, and covered both inside 
and outside with a bed of clay from two to three inches thick * 
The roofs, as it seems, were made of bark, straw, or rushes, the 
remains of which often have been found in a carbonized state. 
A plaster of clay mixed with gravel was spread on the floor of 
the hut to fill the chinks, and a rude hearth, composed of several 
slabs of sandstone, occupied the middle of each cabin. Some 
of the buildings were of comparatively large dimensions, meas- 
uring twenty -seven by fifteen or more feet, though apparently 
forming only one room, above which there may have been a 
garret. Their size has been ascertained by the presence of sin- 
gle planks standing on edge, which inclosed the floor, doubtless 
for the purpose of keeping off the wet. The cabins probably 
stood in rows close together, considering that space must have 
been much valued on account of the great labor which the con- 
struction of the platforms required. 

Some dwellings were not erected on piles, but on a kind of 
fascine-work formed by layers of sticks and stems of trees, stones, 
and loam, built up from the bottom of the lake until the foun- 
dation was high enough to receive the platform. Many upright 
piles are found in these substructures, but they only served to 
give them steadiness. The fascine-dwellings occur in small lakes, 
not being suitable for large ones, where they would have been 
liable to injury by the waves during violent storms.f 

During the long occupation of the lacustrine villages many 
objects, no doubt, fell accidentally into the water; while immense 

* The upright timbers of the huts, it appears, consisted of long piles pro- 
jecting above the level of the platform. Hence it would follow that a vil- 
lage was laid out in " lots " at the outset according to a preconceived plan. 

f These fascine-works bear some resemblance to the Irish crannoges dc' 
scribed by Sir W. R. Wilde. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 121 

quantities of refuse, such as tlie bones of tte consumed animals 
and broken clay vessels, were intentionally thrown over the plat- 
forms, and, as we may assume, through the interstices of the stems 
or planks forming them. These heterogeneous accumulations of 
things became imbedded in the mud, forming what are now — 
ages afterward — called the archaeological strata or relic -beds, 
upon which for the last twenty years the dredging implements 
of antiquaries have operated, and brought to light the evidences 
of a most curious long-forgotten phase of human existence. In a 
number of cases the bulk of these relic-beds has been swelled by 
the ruin of the villages themselves, some of which, there can be 
no doubt, were consumed by fire. These conflagrations can not 
have taken place in consequence of hostile attacks, because hu- 
man skeletons are exceedingly scarce in the pile- works, and there- 
fore must be ascribed to accidental ignitions, which were likely 
to befall wooden straw-roofed huts, each of them provided with 
an open hearth, probably blazing most of the time. When such 
calamities happened, many articles fell into the water in a char- 
red state, and were preserved to our days, owing to the almost 
indestructible nature of carbonized substances. Several Swiss 
lakes have much decreased in extent, and their ancient shores are 
fringed with formations of peat, which now inclose in some in- 
stances the remains of lacustrine villages formerly surrounded by 
water. Such is the case at Moosseedorf, near Berne, at Wauwyl, 
in the canton of Lucerne, and at Robenhausen, on Lake Pfaffikon, 
where the owner of the celebrated pile -work, Mr. Jacob Messi- 
kommer, has been successfully engaged for years in extracting 
relics of the early lacustrine period from peat and moor ground. 

The builders of the pile- works, it must be admitted, were an 
intelligent and industrious people, who applied to the utmost the 
scanty means which their primitive state of civilization offered 
them. They pursued hunting and fishing, but devoted them- 
selves also to agriculture and the raising of cattle; they were 



122 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 
.3 4- 




I/ACUSTKINE KELICS OF STONE, HOKN, AND BONE.* 

1, 2, 3. Flint arrow-heads. 4, 5. Flint saws in wooden handles (Meilen and Moosseedorf). 6. 
Stone celt. 7. Stone chisel in stag horn socket (Meilen). 8. Stone celt in stag horn socket, 
squared for insertion into a wooden club (Meilen). 9. Wooden club with a stone celt fixed in 
it (Eobenhausen). 10. Club of ash wood with a stag horn socket and stone celt (Robenhau- 
sen). 11. EoUed stone, showing the cut made with a flint saw. 12. Sandstone for grinding 
celts (Meilen). 13. Drilled stone axe (Meilen). 14. Drilled stone axe (Estavayer, Lake of 
Neuchatel). 15. Two grain-crushers (Meilen). 16. Hammer of stag horn (Estavayer). 17. 
Hoe (?) of stag horn, handle added (Eobenhausen). 18, 19, 20. Piercing implements of bone 
(Meilen). 21. Harpoon-head of stag horn, 6^ inches long (Wauwyl). 

* Our drawings of lacustrine relics are almost exclusively taken from a 
little work by J. Staub, entitled " Die Pfahlbauten in den Schweizer-Seen," in 
which the size of the delineated objects is not indicated. The same drawings 
are contained, on a larger scale, in the English translation of Dr. Keller's 
work, which is before us ; but even there the size is not always given. The 
reader, it is hoped, will supply that want by his imagination. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 123 

skillful workers in stone, horn, bone, and wood, practiced pottery 
to a great extent, and produced very creditable tissues, employing 
a loom of simple construction. The various occupations of the 
lake-men, and the fact of their living in close communities, indi- 
cate no small degree of social order, which necessitated the sub- 
mission to the decrees of chiefs or a majority of the people. 
These lake-dwellers certainly were in all respects above the rude 
prehistoric populations thus far introduced to the reader. Let 
us now throw a hasty glance at their manufactures. 

Articles of flint can not be said to abound in the pile-works, 
for the reason that this material is found sparingly in Switzerland, 
where it occurs, moreover, only in small masses not fit to be made 
into large implements like those found in Denmark and other 
Northern countries. The flint used by the lake -men came from 
the Swiss Jura, from France and Germany, and thus probably pos- 
sessed the character of a ware which had to be obtained by barter. 
Yet they made good arrow and spear heads, scrapers, saws, and 
various cutting and piercing tools of this material. Their arrow- 
heads are rather small, usually from an inch and a quarter to an 
inch and a half in length, and lozenge-shaped or triangular, those 
of the latter kind being often provided with projections or stems 
at the base to facilitate insertion in the shaft. Some are slightly 
barbed. Flint saws, mostly two or three inches long, occur more 
frequently, because these implements were indispensable in the 
preparation of articles of wood, horn, and bone, and even of stone 
tools, as will be seen. Some of the saws still retain their wooden 
handles, into which they were cemented with asphaltum, a sub- 
stance also employed for fastening arrow-heads in their shafts. 
We give drawings of two handled saws, remarking, however, that 
the real objects are not so regularly serrated as the illustrations 
indicate. The artist, knowing that he was representing saws, 
drew a little on his imagination. The principal implements of 
the lake- men were the ground celts or wedge-shaped hatchets. 



124 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

not made of flint, but of serpentine, diorite, syenite, and other 
kinds of stone possessing a sufficient degree of tougliness. Large 
numbers of these implements have been found in the settlements 
of the Stone Age, and they are not wanting in those of later 
times, when bronze was already in use. They vary in length 
from one inch to eight inches, and doubtless served, according to 
their size and weight, for many purposes — as weapons of war and 
the chase, for cutting wood, horn, and bone, dismembering and 
skinning animals, and in various other ways. Many of them 
may have been used immediately with the hand; but others, 
which represented small chisels and cutting tools, were set in 
pieces of deer horn, hollowed on one side to receive the stone 
blade, which, being thus hafted, could be handled with greater 
convenience. A few complete axes, blade and shaft united, have 
been found, two of them at Robenhausen, representations of 
which are given. One of these weapons shows the stone blade 
directly inserted into the thick end of a wooden club ; the other 
consists of a blade held by a socket of stag horn, which is work- 
ed into a square form at the upper end, to fit into a correspond- 
ing cavity of the wooden shaft. Such weapons resemble much 
the war-clubs, or casse-tetes, of the North American Indians. The 
squared sockets of deer horn occur in great number in some of 
the ancient settlements; but the blades belonging to them are 
wanting in most cases, while the shafts nearly always have been 
consumed by decay. The manufacture of the stone celts must 
have required much time and patient labor, as shown by a num- 
ber of commenced or more or less finished specimens, which il- 
lustrate the work in its various stages of progress. After having 
chosen a rolled stone of the proper kind and size, the workman 
cut a groove across it, sometimes half an inch in depth, by means 
of a flint saw applied with sand and water, after which he split 
the stone into two pieces, each furnishing the material for a celt, 
provided the crack had gone in the right direction. If no further 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 125 

sawing was required, these pieces probably were rough -hewn 
with another stone, and afterward ground into the proper shape 
on a slab of hard sandstone. The polishing and grinding of the 
cutting edges were done on a still harder stone. 

At Meilen and other lacustrine stations there have been met 
celts apparently made of nephrite, a kind of hard green stone not 
known to occur in Europe, but found in Egypt, in China and other 
parts of Asia. These implements are supposed by some to have 
been introduced by way of barter from those remote regions, 
while others incline to the opinion that the material of which 
they consist was obtained from nearer localities yet to be discov- 
ered. A sort of trade or traffic doubtless existed in Europe in 
the earliest times ; but it remains doubtful for the present wheth- 
er the lake-dwellers of Switzerland were thus provided with celts 
of nephrite from distant countries. Those who ascribe the lacus- 
trine settlements to new-comers from abroad conjecture that they 
imported these implements, or the material of which they are 
made. Various lake -villages of the Stone Age have furnished 
well-shaped stone axes pierced for the insertion of handles. We 
give drawings of two specimens, one of them provided with a han- 
dle, which, we are bound to state, is an addition of the artist, who 
wanted to restore the implement to its original complete state. 
Among other lacustrine articles of stone are to be mentioned 
hammers of a cubical form with rounded edges, and grain-crushers 
about the size of a fist, and worked into the shape of an orange 
or a ball, with depressions on four sides. These grain -crushers 
were used in connection with other flat or more or less concave 
stones. 

Most varied were the uses which the lake-men made of the 
horns, bones, and teeth of animals. The horns of the stag were 
made into the celt sockets already described ; stout pieces of this 
material, perforated with holes for holding wooden handles, served, 
according to the manner in which their ends were fashioned, as 



126 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 




hammers, hatchets, or hoes; and the antler was sometimes con- 
verted into a club by the removal of 
the prongs, excepting that near the 
brow. Such an implement resembled 
a pick, and could be used with great effect either 
as a weapon or a hoe.* Bones furnished the ma- 
terial for arrow and spear heads, poniards, chisels, 
scrapers, piercers, needles with or without eyes, 
fishing implements, and various other kinds of tools. 
The teeth of the bear and the tusks of the wild 
boar were utilized for similar purposes, the latter, 
for instance, to serve as cutting or scraping tools 
after their inner curve had been ground to an edge. 
Though most of the wooden articles have per- 
picK-sHAPED iM- ishcd lu consequcnce of decay, many of them that 

PLEMENT OP , . . 

STAG HORN (20 havc bccu preserved in water and peat still remain 
— Take^^^op ^^ show how extensively wood was employed by the 
NEucHiTBL. lake-dwellers. They consist of handles and shafts for 
implements, maces resembling that with which Hercules usually 
is represented, mallets, bows, threshing-flails, ladles, dippers, bowls, 
tubs, and boats made of a single trunk, besides knife-shaped tools, 
floats for nets, combs, and some other articles of unknown use.f 
The hollowing of bowls, tubs, and boats, undoubtedly, was chiefly 
done by means of fire ; while the stone tools, the marks of which 
are still visible, served for removing the charred portions. In 
this manner the aborigines of North America hollowed their 
canoes and wooden mortars. Mr. Messikommer found at Koben- 




* Professor Desor has in his collection a skull pierced with a round hole 
in the hinder part of the left parietal, which, he thinks, may well have been 
made with a club of this description. 

f We should have added primitive "racks" for suspending utensils, ap- 
parel, etc., formed of young trees from which the branches are cut oflf at some 
distance from their junction with the stem. 



KITCHEN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 



127 



hausen a boat with rounded ends, twelve feet long, two and a 
half feet wide, and five inches deep. A number of such lacus- 
trine " dug-outs," some of them much larger than that just men- 
tioned, are still in existence, and similar ones are even now occa- 
sionally to be seen on the lakes of Eastern Switzerland. 




LACUSTRINE MANUFACTURES OP WOOD AND CLAY. 

1. Upper portion of a pile, cut out for receiving a cross-beam (Robenhausen). 2. Mallet of oak 
wood (Niederwyl). 3, 4, 5. Domestic utensils of maple wood (Robenhausen). 6. Bowl of oak 
wood, showing the marks of the stone hatchet (Robenhausen). 7, 8. Knife -shaped imple- 
ments of yew wood (Robenhausen and Wauwyl). 9. Comb of yew wood (Moosseedorf). 10, 
11, 12, 13. Pottery (Robenhausen and Meilen). 

The domestic wooden utensils of the lake -dwellers much re- 
semble corresponding objects manufactured at the present day, as 
the reader will perceive by examining our illustrations. That 
pottery was extensively made even in the lake -settlements of 
earliest date, is proved by the great number of sherds scattered 
over their sites. Entire vessels, it may be imagined, are rarely 
met ; but the curve and shape of the fragments often suffice for 
determiniog their original forms. The material is mostly unpuri- 
fied clay mixed with coarse gravel, pounded granite, or charcoal ; 
and the vessels are all hand-made, of rude appearance, and slight- 
ly baked, probably in an open fire. Notwithstanding these im- 



128 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

perfections, attempts at decoration are not wanting, some of the 
vessels being encircled by knobs below the rim, or showing rows 
of impressions made with the finger or some blunt tool. In oth- 
er cases lines are traced either with an implement or by pressing 
a cord on the soft clay. Most of the pottery has a blackish ap- 
pearance, perhaps owing to a coating with graphite.* There is 
evidence that vessels of large size were used for storing grain, ap- 
ples, and other provisions. We give drawings of four clay vessels 
from Robenhausen and Meilen, which will convey some idea of 
early lacustrine pottery. 

It has been mentioned that, in consequence of the destruction 
of certain lake- villages by fire, many objects fell into the water in 
a charred state, and were preserved to our days in consequence of 
their carbonization. Not the least interesting among these speci- 
mens are the twisted, plaited, and woven manufactures which 
were found at various stations, but especially at Robenhausen 
and Wangen. A kind of short flax was cultivated by the lake- 
men, and used most extensively in the fabrication not only of 
thread, cordage, and nets for fishing, and probably for hunting, 
but also of different sorts of linen cloth, some with inwoven 
patterns, a fact proving that they employed some kind of loom.f 
Mr. Paur, of Zurich, a manufacturer of ribbon, has constructed a 
loom supposed to resemble that of the lake-dwellers, by which he 
is able to reproduce their different kinds of textile fabrics. We 
give a drawing of this restored loom, yet without deeming it im- 
probable that an apparatus of simpler construction was employed 

* There are in the writer's collection many fragments of lacustrine pot- 
tery, and some entire vessels, which the most practiced eye can hardly dis- 
tinguish from the ceramic productions of the North American Indians. Ma- 
terial, shape, and ornamentation are almost identical. 

f The writer has among his lacustrine relics flax in the shape of seed-pods, 
seeds, fibres and tow, and further thread, strings, and numerous plaited and 
woven fabrics, all found at Robenhausen. Hemp, it appears, was not grown 
during the lacustrine period. 







WOVEN AND PLAITED FABRICS OF THE LAKE-MEN. 

1, Restored lacustrine loom. 2. Spindle-whorl of sandstone (half size: Auvernier, Lake of Neu- 
chatel). 3, 4. Tissues of flax. 5. Compact cloth, undecided whether plaited or woven. 6. 
Mat of bast. 7. Mat of flax strands. 8. Mat of willow twigs and straw. The woven and 
plaited articles here figured were obtained at Eobenhausen and Wangen. 



KITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS, 131 

by the lake -men.* Conical objects of clay, thought to have 
served as stretchers in the process of weaving, often occur ; and 
numerous spindle- whorls, either of stone or of clay, are indicative 
of the common practice of spinning.f The lake-people doubtless 
dressed to a great extent in woven garments, but we may assume 
that they also employed the prepared skins of animals for this 
purpose; indeed, fragments of leather have been found, though 
sparingly, at Kobenhausen. 

During the early lacustrine period, hunting still furnished in 
no small degree the means of subsistence, as shown by the large 
number of bones of wild animals found on the sites of the ancient 
lake villages. Professor Rutimeyer, of Basle, has carefully inves- 
tigated the fauna of those times, which, on the whole, corresponds 
with that of our days, though certain species of animals now no 
longer to be found in Switzerland then flourished in that coun- 
try. The urus and aurochs, or bison, were hunted by the lake- 
men, or perhaps caught by them in pitfalls. The elk, an animal 
not known to have lived in Switzerland during historical times, 
still roamed through the woods; but the reindeer had migrated 
to the north in search of a colder climate, no remains of it hav- 
ing been discovered in any of the pile-works. It is hardly nec- 
essary to repeat that the mammoth, rhinoceros, cave -bear, lion, 
and hyena had accomplished their term of existence long before 
the lacustrine era. The stag and wild boar, both no longer living 
in Switzerland, were much hunted by the lake-dwellers, and their 
bones indicate animals of very large size. Another species of 

* The Pima Indians of the Gila River, for instance, make very good and 
really ornamental tissues, employing a loom that consists only of a few sticks, 
which they carry about in a small bundle. The loom of the ancient Mexi- 
cans was far less complicated than that constructed by Mr. Paui', and yet the 
inhabitants wove cotton cloth which excited the admiration of the Spanish 
conquerors. 

f Spindle- whorls of clay belong more particularly to the lacustrine sta- 
tions of the Bronze ^ge. 



132 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

wild hog, differing from the wild boar proper, and called the 
" marsh hog " by Riitimeyer, is represented by numerous remains 
in the pile- works. Bones of the roe- deer are far less abundant 
than those of the stag. Among the carnivores may be mention- 
ed the brown bear, wolf, and fox, the last-named of which occurs 
frequently in the settlements of the Stone A^^q^ and was eaten by 
the lake-men : a fact proved by the condition of its bones, which 
are broken, and exhibit the marks of stone instruments, like those 
of the other animals serving as food. The hare, it seems, formed 
no article of diet among these people, owing, perhaps, to the same 
prejudice which caused, as we have seen, the men of the Danish 
Kjokkenmoddings to abstain from its flesh. The lake-dwellers 
possessed a species of domestic dog of middle size, which they 
seem to have much valued, if the fact that it was not used as 
food, unless in cases of extreme need, warrants such a conclusion. 
The bones and skulls of these faithful companions of man are 
generally not broken, like those of other animals, but nearly al- 
ways occur in an entire state in the lacustrine accumulations. 
Kemains of the horse are exceedingly scarce in the settlements of 
the Stone Age : but two kinds of tame cattle were common dur- 
ing that period, one of them small, and called the " marsh cow " 
by Professor Riitimeyer ; the second species, of larger size, is sup- 
posed by this author to have descended from the urus. The oth- 
er domesticated animals were goats and sheep, and, during the 
later division of the lacustrine Stone Age, two kinds of hogs, de- 
rived, according to Riitimeyer, from the wild species already men- 
tioned. It has been ascertained beyond doubt that the tamed 
animals were brought for shelter to the lake villages, where they 
were kept in stalls distributed between the huts. No traces of 
domestic fowl have been discovered in the lake settlements ; nor 
of the cat, which, moreover, could easily be dispensed with, since 
those people, as it seems, were not plagued by rats and mice : the 
only bone of a mouse thus far found belongs to a wild species 



KITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 133 

that never enters the dwellings of man.* The birds, amphibians, 
and fishes which have left their traces in the deposits around the 
piles pertain to the present fauna of Switzerland, and therefore 
need not be specialized. That wild ducks, geese, swans, water- 
hens, grouse, and other species of the feathered tribe were objects 
of hunting, is demonstrated by their discovered remains. The 
lake-people evidently practiced fishing with good success. They 
caught the various kinds of fish abounding in their lakes, espe- 
cially pike of large size, either in nets, remains of which have 
been found at several stations, or with the line ; and it is proba- 
ble, too, that the methods of shooting and spearing fish were in 
vogue among them. There have been found fish-hooks made of 
boars' tusks, and other implements consisting of small rods of 
bone, pointed at both ends and notched in the middle for the at- 
tachment of a fishing-line. When these pointed rods were bait- 
ed and swallowed, they could not easily be disgorged by the 
fish, which thus became the prey of man. According to Keller, 
this primitive device is still resorted to in Switzerland for catch- 
ing wild ducks. 

Owing to causes known to the reader, carbonized vegetable 
remains have been preserved in great abundance and variety, to 
assist, as it were, in elucidating the mode of life of those ancient 
lake- villagers. They undoubtedly raised barley, wheat, and mil- 
let, several kinds of each of these cereals having been found in 
the lacustrine deposits. Some of these species of grain were cul- 
tivated in Egypt, and therefore are believed to have found their 
way from that country to Switzerland. Rye was not known to 
the colonists, and oats not before bronze had come into use. Bar- 
ley and wheat appear either in grains, sometimes in considerable 
quantities, or, more rarely, still retain the shape of ears ; and even 



* If certain records are to be credited, the domestic cat of Europe was 
introduced from Egypt about a thousand years ago. 



134 EARLY MAN IJSF EUROPE. 

carbonized wheat bread, in which the bran and the imperfectly 
crushed grains can be distinctly seen, has been found at Roben- 
hausen and Wangen. This unleavened prehistoric bread, which 
is very coarse and compact, occurs mostly in fragments, but some- 
times in the form of small roundish cakes about an inch or an 
inch and a half thick, and was doubtless baked by placing the 
dough on hot stones, and covering it over with glowing ashes. , 
Millet was employed in a similar manner for making bread. It 
is probable, however, that the lake-people consumed their farina- 
ceous food chiefly in the shape of porridge. 

Carbonized apples of small size, identical with those growing 
wild in the woods of Switzerland, have been found abundantly, 
and in a tolerable state of preservation. Mr. Messikommer dis- 
covered on one occasion more than three hundred of them lying 
close together. They are often cut in halves, more rarely in three 
or four parts, and were evidently dried for consumption during 
winter. Whether a larger kind of apple, found at Robenhausen, 
was cultivated, or a wild -growing species, remains undecided. 
Professor Oswald Heer, of Zurich, who has published an interest- 
ing work on lacustrine vegetable remains, inclines to the former 
view. Wild pears were treated in the same manner; but they 
are far less common than apples, which must have formed a 
much-sought article of diet. Among other vegetable remains ac- 
cumulated in the lake mud may be mentioned hazel-nuts and 
beech-nuts, both in great plenty; also water- chestnuts, which 
doubtless were collected and eaten by the lake-men, as they are 
in Upper Italy at this day. Their present occurrence in Switz- 
erland appears to be restricted to a tarn in the canton of Lu- 
cerne. There have further been found abundantly the stones 
of sloes, bird-cherries, and wild plums, and seeds of the raspber- 
ry, blackberry, and strawberry, showing that these fruits of the 
forest were used as food. According to Dr. Keller, the lake-col- 
onists of the Stone Age drew their sustenance chiefly from the 



EITCREN-MIDDENS AND LAKE SETTLEMENTS. 135 

vegetable kingdom. Their animal food evidently was acquired 
by hunting rather than by the breeding of cattle, considering that 
in the accumulations around the piles the bones of wild animals 
outnumber those of the domestic species.* Milk, we may assume, 
formed an important article of their diet. 

A lacustrine village must have presented a curious but not un- 
pleasing sight, when, on a fine day, the poor and industrious col- 
onists were gathered on the platform, and engaged in their vari- 
ous occupations. We may imagine groups of women busily turn- 
ing the spindle and gossiping — in what language it would be in- 
teresting to know. Other females are at work forming vessels 
of clay, to be burned on the shore, or perhaps knitting nets or 
preparing garments. Lacustrine urchins abandon themselves to 
juvenile frolics, just like civilized children, while here and there 
a veteran, too old for fatiguing exertions, is busied in whittling 
some domestic utensil or in fashioning a weapon for his son or 






CAKBONIZEU PEAK AND APPLES FROM THE LAKE -DWELL 
INGS (natural size). 

grandson. When evening draws near, smoke begins to rise from 
the huts, where the women are baking and cooking, for the men 
who have been hunting in the woods will soon return, armed 
with spear and bow, and loaded with the game killed by them. 
Those who have spent the day in fishing guide their boats home- 
ward ; field laborers, returning from the cultivated patches along 
the shore, are seen to wend their way toward the bridge, driving 

* In the lacustrine stations of the Bronze Age, however, the remains of 
tamed animals prevail, a fact which unmistakably indicates an advance in 
civilization. 



136 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

before them the lowing cattle, whicli were permitted to graze on 
the land during day-time, and are now to be stabled for the night 
among the huts, safe from the attacks of wolf and bear. 

The interesting question to what race of man the early pile- 
works are to be referred has been discussed, but, as the reader 
may imagine, without leading to any thing like a result. It is 
not known in what manner the lake -colonists disposed of their 
dead, no burial-places having thus far been discovered in the 
neighborhood of their settlements. Human remains, moreover, 
are very scarce in the lacustrine relic -beds of the Stone Age, 
and mostly belong to children, who, it appears, had perished by 
drowning. A fragmentary skull found at Meilen, and described 
by Professor His, of Basle, "is allied to the cranial forms now 
prevalent in Grerman Switzerland." Notwithstanding various 
computations, no one knows how far back the origin of the lake- 
dwellings can be dated. The presence of Roman coins, pottery, 
and tiles in a few settlements of the Iron Age gives us some clue 
as to the epoch when the lacustrine period approached its termi- 
nation ; but we are absolutely in the dark in regard to the begin- 
ning and duration of the lake -colonies belonging to the earliest 
times, during which the use of metal was yet unknown in Switz- 
erland. 

Our condensed account relates, as we stated at the outset, 
only to the settlements of the Stone Age. The gradual introduc- 
tion of far more serviceable implements of bronze, as may be im- 
agined, brought about a great change for the better in the mode 
of existence of the lake-people, yet without modifying in a mark- 
ed degree the character of their aquatic dwellings. Though we 
should like to follow these remarkable developments, we must 
abstain from that attempt, and confine our further remarks to the 
Stone Age proper. 




TUMULUS OF THE STONE AGE. — ISLAND OF MOEN, DENMARK. 



CHAPTER VI. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



Lsr the present closing chapter we purpose to treat chiefly of 
those productions of the European Stone Age which, from their 
perfection and finish, are illustrative of the highest mechanical 
skill developed during that remote period, and consequently in- 
clude the types characteristic of the later neolithic stage imme- 
diately antecedent to the introduction of utensils and weapons of 
bronze. Such stone implements of superior workmanship are 
particularly numerous in Denmark, the Scandinavian peninsula, 
and that part of Germany which is washed by the Baltic Sea; 
but they also occur, as may be imagined, more or less abundantly 
in Great Britain and Ireland, in France, and the countries of the 
European continent in general. The Baltic districts just men- 
tioned are very rich in flint, and this circumstance doubtless con- 
tributed in no small degree to the proficiency which their ancient 
inhabitants had acquired in the art of fashioning that material. 
The Prussian island of Riigen, for instance, which abounds in ere- 



138 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

taceous flint, and has furuislied a great number of neolithic imple- 
ments, must have been a manufacturing place of importance in 
ancient times, perhaps a prehistoric Sheffield or Solingen on a 
small scale. In order to give the reader some idea of the fre- 
quency of stone implements within the narrow limits of the Dan- 
ish kingdom, we will state that the celebrated museum of Co- 
penhagen contained, ten years ago, exclusive of duplicates and 
broken specimens, as many as 4840 articles of neolithic type, 
among them 1070 flint axes and wedges, 953 chisels, 250 pon- 
iards, 656 lance-heads, 205 half-moon- shaped implements, 746 
pierced axes, etc. To these should be added 3678 rough stone 
implements from the Kjokkenmoddings (described in the pre- 
ceding chapter), and 280 objects of horn and bone. Grenerally 
speaking, the collections of Denmark are thought to contain 
about 30^000 articles of stone, and nearly every archseological 
museum of Europe counts among its specimens a series of these 
much-sought Danish relics, not to mention those in the hands of 
private individuals. Rude stone tools of paleolithic types, such 
as have been found with the remains of extinct quadrupeds in 
the river gravels and ancient cave deposits of Western Europe, 
appear to be wanting in Denmark and the other Northern coun- 
tries of which mention has been made. Their absence, if well es- 
tablished, would indicate that these districts became inhabited at 
a later period, and by a race more advanced than the barbarous 
contemporaries of the mammoth. 

The stone implements of which we intend to treat are met 
on or near the surface of the soil, in marshes and peat bogs, and 
quite frequently in the tombs of the later Stone Age, where they 
have been deposited, with other objects of use or ornament, by 
the side of the departed, as tokens of the affection of relatives 
and friends, and probably with the crude notion that they might 
be of service in a future state of existence. Similar funeral cus- 
toms are still observed by the North American Indians and other 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



139 



primitive men of modern times, who expect after death something 
like a continuation of their former physical existence, with all its 
pleasant features and none of its cares and undesirable incidents. 




DANISH CROMLECH. 



Weapons, utensils, food- vessels, and trinkets, which are found as- 
sociated with human remains in Indian graves, were likewise 
buried, doubtless for the same purpose, with the European of the 
Stone Age. His tomb, however, bore a more substantial charac- 
ter than that of the red man, being composed of heavy upright 
stones and others placed horizontally to cover them, the whole 
forming a rude vault or chamber, which was often inclosed by a 
tumulus or mound of earth, and reached from without by a pas- 
sage also constructed of stones. These chambers are sometimes 
of large dimensions, and the stones forming them of such bulk 
and weight that it is difficult to imagine by what means they 
were transported and placed in their proper position by men of 
very primitive attainments, who can be credited with but little 
knowledge of mechanics. The larger chambers served as the last 
abodes to a number of human beings, probably belonging to one 
family, and the corpses, in order to occupy as little space as possi- 
ble, usually were deposited in a sitting or contracted posture, sur- 
rounded by the objects which their kindred had deemed proper 
to bury with them. Several classes of stone graves are ascribed 



140 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

to the epocli under notice; but we are compelled, for the sake 
of brevity, to allude only in general terms to a subject which in 
itself would furnish ample material for several chapters.* 

Structures composed of huge boulders or fragments of rocks 
supporting a large cap-stone are frequently met standing entirely 
exposed on the surface of the soil. Whether they were original- 
ly all covered with earth is a mooted question. Such megalithic 
erections occur under different names — Gro7nleoJis, dolmens^ etc. — 
in various parts of Europe, and more or less analogous structures 
have been discovered in Syria and Northern Africa. Yet they 
can not all be referred exclusively to the Stone Age; and some 
may not mark places of sepulture, but represent monuments built 
in honor of distinguished individuals or in commemoration of im- 
portant events, f 

During the Bronze Age the practice of burning the dead was 
prevalent, in consequence of which the funeral monuments appear 
modified in their character, generally presenting the shape of 
tumuli inclosing earthen vessels or urns, which contain burned 
human bones, and often weapons and ornaments of bronze. But 
the mode of sepulture alone affords not always a sure guidance 
in determining to what age the burial is to be referred, consider- 
ing that the two epochs are not separated by a strongly defined 
line, but by a period of transition which may have been of very 
long duration in certain districts, giving rise to a merging of fu- 
neral customs that renders classification difiScult. In the prehis- 
toric Age of Iron, again, inhumation seems to have been the most 
common method of burial, the bodies being laid down extended 
at full length, contrary to the rule of depositing them in a con- 

* The few observations thus far made, it should be understood, relate 
more particularly to tombs still existing in Denmark and the neighboring 
countries. 

f It is a remarkable fact that funeral monuments of a kindred character 
are still erected by certain tribes in India. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 
1 



141 





DANISH FLINT TOOLS. 



1. Flake (natural size). 2. Serrated implement (half size). 

tracted posture, which, as we have seen, obtained during the AgQ 
of Stone. 

In entering upon the subject of neolithic implements, we be- 
gin with the simplest form, which is a flake struck off from a 
block of flint. Such flakes, as the reader knows, were extensive- 
ly used during paleolithic times in various ways, but especially, 
it may be assumed, as cutting tools, their sharp edges fitting them 
well for that purpose. Paleolithic flakes, however, are often very 
rude, while those of the period now under consideration general- 
ly exhibit a more regular shape, and thus indicate the improved 
skill of the later prehistoric flint-chipper. They are, owing to the 
conchoidal fracture of flint, more or less curved in the longitudi- 
nal direction, from two to six and more inches long, but rarely 
more than an inch broad, and terminate often in a point. The 
under face, produced by the blow which detached the flake from 
the block, always presents a single fracture ; while the upper side 
shows two or three (but seldom more) facets, resulting from the 
preceding removal of blades. These cutting tools were probably 
provided with handles, in order to be used with greater efficiency. 
Prismatic cores or nuclei from which flakes have been dislodged 
occur frequently in places where these primitive knives were 



142 EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

manufactured. Such open-air workshops have been discovered in 
the island of Kiigen and elsewhere. A few cases are recorded in 
which flint cores were found with the flakes split off from them 
lying close by, and fitting exactly into the facets upon them. The 
ancient Mexicans made knives absolutely identical in shape with 
those from Denmark and other parts of Northern Europe ; but 
instead of flint they employed for this purpose obsidian — a vol- 
canic product that breaks like flint, and occurs abundantly in 
some parts of their country. According to the early Spanish 
chroniclers,* the Aztec artisan dislodged the flakes from the ob- 
sidian block by pressure, employing a large wooden T-shaped im- 
plement, which acted somewhat in the manner of a punch, the 
cross-piece resting against the chest; and a skillful workman, 
says Clavigero, in his " History of Mexico," was able to make a 
hundred of these knives within an hour. It is doubtful whether 
the fine flint flakes of the Baltic districts were produced in a sim- 
ilar manner, considering that flint will not yield to pressure as 
easily as the more brittle obsidian. 

Among the chipped flint articles of the European North we 
have to mention certain flat implements somewhat resembling in 
outline the segment of a circle, or sometimes a half-moon. These 
tools have been classed as cutting implements and as saws, their 
edges being occasionally serrated, as in the given drawing. Sir 
John Lubbock thinks it probable that they were fixed with their 
convex edges into wooden handles, and then used in cleaning 
skins. Neolithic scrapers resemble those of the earlier Stone 
Age, though they are often more regularly chipped ; but having 
represented scrapers, and alluded to their uses in the third chap- 
ter of this volume ("The Troglodytes"), we need not say more 
about them in this place. 

The neolithic period is characterized by a great variety of 

* Torquemada, Motolinia. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



143 



chipped flint arrow-lieads, many of which are wrought with ad- 
mirable skill, and may be classed among the most remarkable 
relics of antiquity. The simpler forms present the outlines of 
triangles, leaves, or lozenges; in the more elaborate specimens 
the part opposite the point terminates in a stem or tang, which 
facilitated the attachment to the shaft. Some arrow-heads are 
both stemmed and barbed ; others have long barbs, but no stems. 
In many the converging edges are skillfully serrated or jagged. 









FLINT ARKOW- HEADS (nATUKAL SIZE). — GREAT BRITAIN AND DENMARK. 

A glance at our illustrations will be more instructive than any 
information we could offer.* These arrow-heads are from one 
to two or three inches long; but it is impossible to determine 
whether the long specimens are really arrow-heads or the points 
of javelins, considering that there is no marked difference in their 
respective forms. The base of the arrow-head, whether straight, 
indented, or stemmed, is generally worked thin, in order to fit 
into a slit at the end of the wooden shaft, where it was secured 
by means of sinews tightly wound around the wood. Some sort 
of glue or cement, moreover, may have been used to connect the 
stone point more firmly with the shaft.f The Swiss lake -men, 

* The illustrations of neolithic implements in this chapter are taken from 
Worsaae's " Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Copenhagen Museum," from 
Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain," and from other 
reliable sources. 

f The Prairie Indians use both glue and sinews for fastening their arrow- 
points. They make their glue from the horns and the hoofs of the buffalo. 



144 



EABLY MAN IN EVBOPE. 



it will be remembered, employed asphaltum for that purpose. 
Flint arrow -heads evidently were still used in Northern Europe 
long after bronze had become known. In England, for instance, 
bronze arrow-heads are extremely scarce, while arrow-heads of 
flint occur frequently in ancient graves containing weapons and 
implements of bronze. This fact may be easily accounted for by 
the costliness of bronze and the abundance of flint, a flint-tipped 
arrow being, moreover, almost as effective as one provided with a 
point of bronze. 

There are some curious superstitions attached to flint arrow- 
heads in various parts of Europe, as, 
for instance, in Scotland and Ireland, 
where the country people call them 
elf-shots or elf bolts, believing them to 
be the missiles of those imaginary be- 
ings. They used to wear them, mount- 
ed in silver frames, as protections 
against evil influences. Sir W. R. 

FLINT AKKOW-HEAB MOUNTED IN A ^-JJ^ g^^^^g ^^^^ '^^ ^^^ ^^^.^^ ^f J^.^, 
SILVEK FRAME (NATURAL SIZE). 

WORN AS A CHARM IN SCOTLAND, jaud, " whcu Cattle arc sick, and the 
cattle doctor or fairy doctor is sent for, he says the beast has been 
' elf- shot,' or stricken by fairy or elfin darts ; and forthwith he 
proceeds to feel the animal all over, and by some legerdemain con- 
trives to find in its skin one or more poisonous weapons, which, 
with some coins, are then placed in the water which it is given 
to drink, and a cure is said to be effected." According to Profes- 
sor Nilsson, the veteran archaeologist of Sweden, there is still lin- 
gering among the Scandinavian peasantry a belief that flint ar- 
row-heads and stone implements in general are endowed with cer- 
tain magic powers. Similar superstitions survive in Italy. In 
some parts of that country the peasants preserve flint arrow-heads 
in their houses, in order to protect them from the effects of light- 
ning; and in the island of Elba they are mounted in silver and 




NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 145 

worn as amulets, as in Scotland and Ireland. An arrow-head of 
flint lias been found appended to an Etruscan necklace of gold, 
apparently as a sort of charm, which seems to show, says Mr. 
Evans, " that a belief in the supernatural origin of these weapons, 
and their consequent miraculous powers, is of very ancient date." 
In this country, where stone arrow-points are probably more nu- 
merous than anywhere else, no strange notions in reference to 
them are entertained by the rural population, their origin and 
use being so well understood that even the children in country 
districts, who pick them up in the fields, are fully aware of their 
being the missiles used, at no remote period, by the aboriginal oc- 
cupants of the soil. Such, at least, was the writer's personal ex- 
perience. 

The next group of illustrations represents four remarkably 
fine objects of flint, which will serve to show what degree of per- 
fection in chipping stone had been attained during the neolithic 
period. The first of them is a sickle-shaped knife terminating in 
a handle, all made of one piece, and measuring fourteen inches in 
length. This unique specimen, which is preserved in the Copen- 
hagen Museum, can hardly have been designed for actual use, be- 
ing very liable to break on account of the brittleness of its mate- 
rial, and for this reason it may be assumed that it served as an 
attribute or a baton of command. In the next figure we present 
one of those beautiful Danish daggers which Sir John Lubbock 
calls " marvels of skill in flint-chipping." The reader will notice 
the elegant outline of this weapon, and particularly its elaborate- 
ly wrought prismatic handle. The third specimen, a javelin-head 
derived from the Isle of Skye, Scotland, and drawn in natural 
size, is less carefully chipped at the edges, yet of very remarkable 
shape, its base being expanded to strengthen the curved barbs. 
The last figure of the group represents again a Danish weapon of 
superior workmanship, which has been classed as a spear- head, 
though it is provided with a square handle, and thus resembles a 

10 



146 



EABLY MAN IN EUROPE. 




LARGE FLINT WEAPONS. 



1 . Sickle-shaped knife, one-third of natural size (Denmark). 2. Dagger, one-third of natural size 
(Denmark). 3. Javelin-head, natural size (Isle of Skye, Scotland). 4. Lance-head, one-thiid 
of natural size (Denmark). 

dagger or a knife. The armatures of lances generally correspond 
in shape more or less to those of arrows, and it is only their 
larger size which indicates the use for which they were designed. 
As in arrow-heads, their lower end is often worked into a projec- 
tion or tang for fitting them in the cleft end of the shaft. Yet 
many of the specimens of this class may have been inserted in 
short handles, and used as daggers or cutting tools. 

The different classes of flint implements thus far treated are 
generally brought into the proper shape by the simple process of 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



147 



chipping, and exhibit only exceptionally traces of polish ; as, for 
instance, some of the Danish daggers, and particularly certain 
Irish spear- heads of a lozenge shape, which were first chipped 
into form and then ground flat on both faces, while the edges re- 
mained in their original state. But the Danish wedge-shaped 
axes or celts of flint, which next claim our attention, are very 






POLISHED FLINT IMPLEMENTS (dENMARK). 

1. Celt, one-third of natural size. 2. Chisel, half size. 3. Gouge, one-fourth of natural size. 

often polished, though perhaps quite as frequently left in a chip- 
ped or rough -hewn state, yet even then showing in most cases 
excellent workmanship. It is probable that many of the latter 
were not intended to be ground. The more carefully prepared 
flint celts, however, are polished either merely at the edge, or on 
the two broad faces, or on all sides, and the edge itself, though of 
tolerable thickness, is usually very sharp and regularly curved. 
They vary in length from three to fifteen inches, and from one to 



148 EABLY MAN IN EUBOFE. 

four inches in breadth. In connection with the celts must be 
mentioned various kinds of chisels, with narrow or broad edges, 
and hollow chisels or gouges, all of which occur either chipped, or 
partly or entirely polished. The narrow chisels are often square 
in the cross section, and resemble the cold-chisels employed in our 
time. Ground celts not made of flint, but of greenstone and oth- 
er hard and tough materials, are of frequent occurrence in various 
European countries. The reader will remember that we have re- 
ferred to them in the preceding chapter while speaking of the 
stone implements in use among the lake villagers of Switzerland. 
These celts differ somewhat in shape from the Danish specimens 
of the same class, being often roundish or elliptic in the cross sec- 
tion, instead of presenting perpendicular sides like many of the 
Northern flint celts, and they often taper into a rounded butt- 
end. Not few of them are worked with great symmetry, sharp- 
edged, and well polished. 

Stone celts in general form a numerous class of neolithic rel- 
ics, and their frequency is indicative of the important part they 
played in times when metallic implements were yet unknown. 
Their shape, indeed, rendered them suitable for application in 
various ways. Some of them probably were used with the hand 
as chisels and knives, or, in connection with mallets, as wedges 
for splitting wood; but there can be no doubt that many were 
fixed into handles to serve as hatchets or axes, or perhaps as 
adzes. Wood, however, is a very perishable substance, and han- 
dles with the stone blades still inserted in them are therefore but 
rarely met. A few hafted hatchets have been preserved, as the 
reader knows, in the relic -beds of Swiss pile -works, and two or 
three others were discovered elsewhere, one of them (here fig- 
ured) in the County of Monaghan, Ireland. In this instance the 
club-shaped handle, which apparently consists of pine -wood, is 
thirteen and a half inches long. " To us, accustomed as we are 
to the use of metals," says Lubbock, " it seems difficult to believe 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



149 



that sucli things were ever made use of; we know, however, that 
many savages of the present day have no better tools. Yet with 
axes such as these, and generally with the assistance of fire, they 




POLISHED STONE CELTS. 

1. Greenstone celt, half size (England). 2. Celt in wooden handle (County of Monaghan,Ireland). 

will cut down large trees and hollow them out into canoes. The 
piles used in the Swiss Stone Age lake-habitations were evident- 
ly, from the form of the cuts on them, prepared with the help of 
stone axes ; and in the Danish peat bogs several trees have been 
found with the marks of stone axes and of fire upon them, and in 
one or two cases stone celts have even been found lying at the 
side." 

The most remarkable neolithic axes are those pierced with a 
hole for the reception of a handle, and thus approaching in char- 



150 



EARLY MAN IN EUBOPE. 



acter corresponding iron implements in use at the present time. 
Varieties of greenstone frequently form their material, though 
syenite, basalt, serpentine, and other suitable mineral substances 
were employed for the same purpose. Pierced axes of flint hard- 
ly ever occur, obviously for the reason that the hardness of this 
kind of stone would have rendered the drilling process too diffi- 
cult. The axe -heads differ much in size and shape, and in the 
degree of skill bestowed on their execution. Their length varies 




DRILLED STONE AXES (ONB-FOTJKTH OF NATURAL SIZE"). — DENMARK. 

from four to ten and more inches. Most of them are wedge- 
shaped, blunt at one end, and terminating at the other in an edge 
placed in the direction of the shaft-hole ; in others the edge forms 
a right angle with the perforation, and these partake of the char- 
acter of adzes. Some, again, have perpendicular edges at both 
ends, and may be called double axes. The shaft-holes are either 
in the middle or nearer the blunt part, and they were drilled 
after the stone had been ground into the proper shape, as shown 
by many otherwise finished specimens exhibiting incipient or 
partly finished perforations. We can not attempt to describe in 
detail the various shapes of these implements, and refer the read- 
er to our illustrations, which will convey some idea of their ap- 
pearance. Specimens of rude make may occasionally be seen in 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 151 

European collections; but most articles of this class are well 
shaped, and not few of them remarkable for elegance of form and 
exquisite workmanship. Drilled axes being sometimes met in 
ancient graves associated with objects of bronze, some archaeolo- 
gists incline to the opinion that they are in general referable to 
the Age of Bronze. Yet this can not be the case, for though the 
manufacture of these stone implements probably was continued 
in times when bronze already had been brought into use, it hard- 
ly admits of any doubt that many belong to the Stone Age prop- 
er — at any rate, to its later stage. We will only allude to the 
pierced axes which, as the reader knows, have been found among 
the relics of Swiss lake settlements pertaining to the Age of 
Stone. It has been shown, moreover, by experiments made both 
in Europe and in this country, that stone of considerable hard- 
ness can be perforated by means of a wooden stick or a properly 
shaped piece of horn in conjunction with sharp sand and water.* 
The highly finished axe -heads ascribed to the Bronze Age may 
have been drilled and fashioned with the aid of metallic imple- 
ments. 

The edges of pierced axes generally are not sharp, but more 
or less blunt, and hence it appears probable that they were de- 
signed for weapons rather than for tools to be employed in cut- 
ting. Yet even as battle-axes they can not have been very effi- 
cient, considering that they were liable to break across the shaft- 
hole after a vigorous blow; and though the manufacturers often 
endeavored to obviate such accidents by increasing the breadth 
of the axe at the place of perforation, the halves of axes broken 
in that part are by no means scarce. The edged fragments, how- 
ever, sometimes have been rendered serviceable again by a second 

* The writer has succeeded in perforating a piece of the hardest diorite, 
nearly an inch and a half in thickness, by employing a wooden apparatus 
shaped like a pump-drill. The modus operandi is described in the Smithso- 
nian Report for 1868. 




152 EABLT MAN IN EUROFE. 

perforation, as in tlie case of the Swedish axe here figured. Many 
well-wrought axe-heads, on the other hand, are in a perfect state 
of preservation, and exhibit no trace of use what- 
ever ; and such specimens, it may be assumed, were 
not applied to serious purposes, but served as in- 
signia of rank or weapons of parade. The real 
war- axe of those times probably was a stone celt 
firmly set in a wooden handle. 

Before proceeding further, we must allude to 
the curious belief among the uneducated in Europe 
that the stone celts and axes they happen to dis- 
cover in the fields have been hurled down from the 
BROKEN AXE WITH sty by lightuiug. This superstition, which now 

NEW SHAFT-HOLE , . ^ ^ ^ . T , , 

(half size). — niay nave yielded m some measure to a better un- 
swEDEN. derstanding, was but a short time ago universal in 

Europe ; and stone celts, as if by common consent, were, and still 
are, denominated "thunder -bolts" in most European languages. 
By that name they are known in Great Britain and Ireland ; in 
French they are called coins de foudre ov pierres de tonnerre; in 
G^Qvm2iTi, Donnei'lceile ;'^ in Dutch, donder-heitels ; in Danish, Torden- 
Mler or Tordensteene ; and corresponding names occur in the lan- 
guages of the more southern nations of Europe, all tending to 
show a common belief in their descent from the clouds — a belief 
which was shared, we must add, even as late as the middle of the 
seventeenth century, by men of learning, who wrote dissertations to 
prove that they were the projectiles of lightning. Some savants 
of the same period, on the other hand, had recognized their true 
character, and endeavored to dispel the misconceptions of their 
contemporaries. Many are the virtues which superstition attrib- 

* Years ago, while collecting Indian relics in the southern counties of 
Illinois, we had often occasion to notice that the German settlers applied the 
name DonnerJceile to the Indian stone tomahawks and celts plowed up in 
their fields, though they knew perfectly well the origin of these implements. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 153 

utes to these stone implements. When kept in a house, they pro- 
tect it from lightning ; the water in which a celt has been boiled 
is a remedy against rheumatism; and sick cattle are cured by 
drinking water in which a celt has been placed. Celts, further, 
are believed to alleviate the pains of childbirth; the powder 
scraped from them is of good effect in various diseases of chil- 
dren, etc. Mr. Evans, after having discussed in an exhaustive 
manner the superstitions connected with these ancient instru- 
ments in Europe as well as in other parts of the Old World, con- 
cludes thus: "There are two deductions which may readily be 
drawn from the facts just stated — ^first, that in nearly all, if not 
indeed in all, parts of the globe which are now civilized there 
was a period when the use of stone implements prevailed ; and, 
secondly, that this period is so remote that what were then the 
common implements of every-day life have now for centuries been 
regarded with superstitious reverence, as of being in some sense 
of celestial origin, and not the work of man's hands." 

Stone hammers, which form a less numerous class of perfo- 
rated instruments, seem to occur chiefly in 
Great Britain and Ireland. They consist of 
quartzite, greenstone, and other materials of 
sufficient hardness, and are in many instances 
well shaped and carefully finished. A few 
bear a great resemblance to certain iron ham- 
mers in use at the present day, being broad in 
the perforated part, and terminating in flat 
faces at both ends. Some are of a cylindrical perforated hammer of 

, , QUARTZITE (hALF SIZE). 

form, and convex at both extremities ; others, —England. 
again, are egg-shaped. In many cases a quartzite pebble of ovoid 
form was perforated and used as a hammer-head without further 
preparation. Among the drilled objects of the neolithic period 
we further have to mention the stone spindle -whorls, or weights 
serving as fly-wheels to impart a rotary motion to the spindle, 




154 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

which, as the reader knows, was a utensil employed in Europe 
at an early time.* The whorls, in their simplest form, are disk- 
shaped, usually from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, 
and pierced in the centre with a small hole, through which the 
pointed spindle of wood or bone was stuck. The country people 
in Ireland call them " fairy millstones." They are often made of 
clay, and sometimes of wood, bone, or ivory, and it is not always 
easy to determine to what period they belong, since spinning 
with distaff and spindle is even now practiced in some parts of 
Europe. In conclusion, we allude to the sink-stones, which are 
pebbles encircled by a groove or perforated with a hole, and sup- 
posed to have served as weights for nets or fishing-lines ; and to 





SINK-STONE AND HAMMER-STONE (ONE-THIED OF NATURAL SIZe), — DENMARK. 

the so-called hammer-stones, mostly oval quartzite pebbles, with 
cup-shaped cavities worked into the two broader faces. The last- 
named tools were not attached to handles, but used with the 
hand alone, the cavities serving to receive the thumb and middle 
finger of the operator. 

The account of neolithic implements here given comprises but 
their principal forms, and is only calculated to acquaint the read- 
er in a cursory way with a subject about which volumes have 
been written in various languages. A more detailed description 
would exceed the proposed limits of this chapter. 

Horn and bone continued to be employed during the later 
Stone Age as materials for arrow-heads, barbed harpoons, pier- 



* A drawing of a spindle-whorl is given in the preceding chapter among 
the illustrations of lacustrine relics. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 155 

cers, hammers, and other weapons or utensils. They were found 
abundantly, as will be remembered, on the sites of Swiss lake vil- 
lages, and we may add that they are not wanting in the North- 
ern countries of Europe; but having repeatedly described such 
implements in preceding chapters, we deem it sufficient merely 
to allude to them in this place. 

The love for personal adornment — common to man in what- 
ever stage of development we may find him — manifests itself in 
the neolithic period by the presence of a variety of objects of a 
decorative character, such as teeth of animals and entire shells 
pierced for suspension, and pendants, beads, and buttons made of 
stone, jet, shell-matter, bone, and amber. The last-named sub- 
stance seems to have been held in particular estimation, and oc- 
curs often in the shape of ornament in the graves of the North, 
where it could be easily obtained, owing to the proximity of 
those coast regions of the North Sea, and especially of the Baltic, 
from which even in our days amber is chiefly derived. This 
beautiful resinous material formed a valued article of commerce 
in very early times, and may then have been more abundant than 
at present. The amber ornaments consist either of unwrought 
perforated pieces or of polished beads of different forms and sizes, 
which were strung together to adorn the necks, and perhaps the 
limbs, of the ancient people. Some of the amber beads of the 
North, it should be added, represent diminutive axes, hammers, 
and celts, exactly shaped like the corresponding stone imple- 
ments, and probably thus fashioned for some symbolic purpose. 

Clay vessels, it appears, were in general use during the neo- 
lithic period. They have been met, as will be remembered, abun- 
dantly, though mostly in a fragmentary state, in the lake settle- 
ments of the Stone Age, and numerous sherds indicative of the 
extent of their manufacture cover everywhere in Europe the sites 
once occupied by the people who used polished stone implements. 
Entire vessels are sometimes found in the sepulchres of those 



156 



EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 



times, wliere they have been placed by the side of the dead, prob- 
ably for holding provisions to serve during their journey to 
anoth^ world. The clay vessels of the period here considered 
are made without the aid of the potter's wheel,* unglazed, and 
slightly burned, and the clay is often tempered with sand, small 
pebbles, crushed stone, or charcoal. In shape and capacity, of 
course, they vary according to the uses for which they were de- 
signed. There are rude vessels with convex bottoms, resembling 
the pottery still manufactured by uncultivated races, and others 




OKNAMENTED DANISH VASE (ONE-THIKD OF NATURAL SIZe). 

of more developed forms, which betoken a higher degree of skill 
in the ceramic art. The Swiss earthenware of the Stone Age, as 
we have seen, can not be much commended for elegance of out- 
line or high finish ; but some of the Danish vessels ascribed to 
the neolithic period are rather gracefully formed and well made, 
like the vase represented above. The ornamentation of the Stone 



* This simple contrivance, it seems, came into use at a much later time, 
for even the lacustrine pottery of the Bronze Age is hand-made. 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 157 

Age pottery chiefly consisted in rows of dots and in parallel and 
zigzag lines, wliicli were traced or impressed on the wet clay. 
The primitive potters hardly ever introduced curved lines, and 
never attempted to engrave the imitation of a plant, an animal, or 
any natural object whatever on their ware. 

Some of our readers, doubtless, have become aware that certain 
European stone implements bear a most striking resemblance to 
corresponding articles of stone left by the aborigines of this coun- 
try. The similarity, however, is not confined to the manufactures 
of Europe and North America, but may be traced all over the in- 
habited globe. The tools and weapons of stone exhibit every- 
, where nearly the same forms, whether they are found in Japan or 
at the Cape of Good Hope, in Tierra del Fuego or in Denmark 
and England. Yet such analogies can not be a matter of sur- 
prise ; on the contrary, it would be strange if they were wanting, 
considering that the spur of necessity urged primitive men in all 
parts of the world and in all ages to resort to the simplest means 
for meeting the exigencies of life. Their inventive powers, im- 
pelled by similar motives, necessarily led them to similar mechan- 
ical contrivances. " Some years ago," says Samuel Smiles, in his 
" Industrial Biography," " there was exhibited at the Crystal Pal- 
ace [England] a collection of ancient European weapons and im- 
plements placed alongside a similar collection of articles brought 
from the South Seas, and they were in most respects so much 
alike that it was difficult to believe that they did not belong to 
the same race and period, instead of being the implements of 
races sundered by half the globe, and living at periods several 
thousand years apart. Nearly every weapon in the one collec- 
tion had its counterpart in the other — the mauls or celts of stone, 
the spear-heads of flint or jasper, the arrow-heads of flint or bone, 
and the saws of jagged stone, showing how human ingenuity, un- 
der like circumstances, had resorted to like expedients." The re- 
semblance probably would have been greater if the exhibitors. 



158 EABLY MAN IN EUBOPE. 

instead of the South Sea manufactures, had placed those of the 
North American aborigines along-side the implements fabricated 
by the ancient Europeans ; for the Indian arrow and spear-heads, 
cutting tools, scrapers, celts, hammer-stones, net-sinkers, etc., are 
sometimes absolutely identical in shape with those of Europe, 
insomuch that they can only be distinguished from each other by 
the difference of the material. This difference is chiefly perceiva- 
ble in the chipped implements, which, as we have seen, were 
made in Europe, to a great extent, of cretaceous flint ; while in 
North America, where the real flint does not seem to occur, horn- 
stone, jasper, common quartz, and other stones of a silicious char- 
acter, formed the materials of which the aborigines generally man- 
ufactured their darts, scrapers, saws, piercers, and cutting tools. 
The ground celts, however, frequently consist of greenstone both 
in Europe and in this country, and they are so much alike in 
shape that a celt found in New Jersey or in Missouri might pass 
for an English or a Grerman specimen. 

The perseverance displayed in the manufacture of such stone 
implements as we have described should not be underrated. An 
experienced flint-chipper, it may be assumed, was able to produce 
his ware in a comparatively short time ; but the grinding and pol- 
ishing of celts and axes and the drilling of the latter must have 
required an enormous amount of patient, long- continued labor. 
So much may be deduced from the testimony of observers who 
witnessed similar performances among modern uncultivated races. 
The learned Jesuit Lafitau, for instance, who wrote a remarkable 
work on the North American Indians, among whom he had lived 
as a missionary, mentions that an Indian sometimes spent his life- 
time in making a stone tomahawk, yet without entirely finishing 
it, and that such an implement descended as a precious heir-loom 
in a family. This statement would appear somewhat exagger- 
ated; but Mr. Alfred Wallace makes a similar observation con- 
cerning certain quartz cylinders worn by chiefs on the Rio Negro, 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 



159 



in Soutli America. The perforation of such cylinders, he remarks, 
is said sometimes to take two men's lives.* But savages are ut- 
terly regardless of time, and so were undoubtedly the people of 
the European Stone Age. It is only civilized man that minds 
the fleeting hour. 

Allusion has been made to the stones on which the lake-men 
of Switzerland ground and polished their celts and axes. Such 
grinding-stones are not rare in other countries of Europe, though 
not generally as characteristic as the stone here figured, which was 




GRINDING-STONE. — VAEENNE-SAINT-HILAIKE, FRANCE. 



discovered in 1860 by M. Leguay at Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, in the 
Department of the Seine. It is an unwrought sandstone slab 
thirteen inches thick, thirty -seven inches long, and twenty -one 
wide, and bearing on its flat surface the cavities and grooves 
caused by the operation of grinding. Over this slab of sand- 
stone bent the ancient celt-maker, rubbing on it the rough-hewn 
implement, forward and backward, until by dint of hard labor it 

* The process consists in twirling a flexible leaf-shoot of wild plantain be- 
tween the hands, and thus grinding the hole with the aid of fine sand and 
water. 



160 EABLT MAN IN EUROPE. 

slowly and gradually assumed the intended shape; and, after 
all the toil bestowed upon its production, it was but a wretched 
substitute for the kindred metallic tool of later times. And yet 
we would emphatically remind the reader that the period during 
which man in Europe had to content himself with implements 
of stone undoubtedly far exceeds in duration the comparatively 
short epoch characterized by the knowledge of metals, and that 
the so-called historical age forms but a small fraction of the vast 
time that has elapsed since man shared the soil of Europe with 
the extinct species of pachyderms and carnivores. 

The question to what race or races the men of neolithic times 
and of the Stone Age in general belonged is far from being solved, 
and forms at the present time a standing topic of discussion among 
the savants of Europe. Both the Neanderthal skull and that of 
the Engis cave present the elongated (or dolichocephalous) crani- 
al formation ; and the troglodytes of Southern France, who hunt- 
ed the reindeer and the horse, likewise belonged to a long-headed 
race, if the skulls found in the Cro-Magnon cave, and in others to 
which we have not referred, are to be taken as types. They are 
considered by some as a people allied to the Eskimos, and we re- 
member having read an article in the London Saturday Iteview in 
which the absolute identity of the Dordogne cave-men with the 
Eskimos was advocated. The reader will remember that the 
kitchen-middens of Denmark have yielded no human remains, but 
that some skulls obtained from Danish megalithic tumuli, believed 
to belong to the same age, are small and round (or brachycepha- 
lous), and remarkable for overhanging brows, on the whole exhib- 
iting a formation somewhat similar to that observed in the skulls 
of Laplanders.* Indeed, tribes akin to the Laplanders and Finns 

* Professor Yirchow, howevei', who measured, some years ago, in Copenha- 
en, skulls of Lapps, Finns, and Eskimos, as well as a considerable number of ne- 
olithic Stone Age skulls, arrived at a somewhat different conclusion. He con- 
siders the Lapps and Finns as brachycephalous and the Greenland Eskimos 



NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. 161 

are supposed by some etlinologists to have spread in ancient times 
over the greater part of Europe, until they were gradually dis- 
possessed by immigrants of Celtic and Teutonic stock. In Great 
Britain, however, tumuli resembling in construction those of Den- 
mark have been found to contain skeletons of a people with skulls 
so long and narrow as to suggest a resemblance to boats; and Pro- 
fessor Nilsson states that most of the skulls met in the Stone Age 
graves of the Scandinavian peninsula are also of the elongated 
form. In the oldest Swiss lake settlements so few human remains 
have been found that comparatively little is known of the phys- 
ical characteristics of their builders. The skull of Meilen, about 
which much has been said, presents a shape intermediate between 
the long-headed and short-headed types. Dr. Keller, the restorer, 
as it were, of the pile- works, first ascribed these constructions to 
a Celtic people ; but it appears that he has of late relinquished 
that view. Thus we meet in Europe at a very early time with 
variations in the cranial structure of man — a circumstance which 
can not be surprising, if all probable changes in the population 
arising from immigrations and intermixing of races during the 
long prehistoric epoch are taken into consideration ; and the effort 
to fix in these late days the types of primeval man appears like 
an almost hopeless task. Yet the most distinguished anthropol- 
ogists of Europe devote all their energies to the solution of that 
interesting problem. May they succeed ! 

Our series of sketches contains but a scanty record of what 
has been done during the last decades toward elucidating the 
early condition of man in Europe. Avoiding as much as possi- 
ble the introduction of theories, we have merely selected and pre- 
sented in proper succession a number of facts particularly suited 
to illustrate the early phases of human life in Europe. Our 

as dolichocephalous, while he discovers in the Danish skulls of the Stone Age 
a formation lying between both extremes, though with a tendency to brachy- 
cephalism. 

11 



162 EARLY MAN IN EUROPE. 

statements, however, will enable the reader to draw the impor- 
tant conclusion that the earliest known condition of man in Eu- 
rope, as indicated by the tokens left by him, must have been one 
of utter barbarism, from which he elevated himself slowly but 
steadily, during the lapse of ages, to his present superior position. 
Primitive man sometimes has been described as a pure and 
happy being, subsisting without exertion on the spontaneous gifts 
of nature, and enjoying perfect exemption from all those ills 
which have fallen to the lot of later " degenerate " mortals. Ovid, 
among other poets of classical antiquity, draws a charming pict- 
ure of man's state during the infancy of his existence, calling 
that period the Golden Age of the world. Such conceptions of 
primeval perfection are certainly very beautiful, but they appear 
utterly mythical when measured by the standard of modern sci- 
ence. The European of the Drift Age, who fought with the lion 
and the bear for the possession of a cave, can not have been a 
happy and a morally perfect being. The extreme rudeness of 
his mode of life precludes that possibility : a hunter of the low- 
est grade, he was among men what the carnivorous beast is 
among animals. We must assign to him the position of a savage, 
but of a savage as far below the buffalo -hunting Pawnee as the 
latter is removed from the cultivated representative of the Cau- 
casian race. 

" This," says Carl Vogt, " was the paradisean state of primitive 
man, as narrated to us by those silent witnesses, the stones and 
bones. From such a low condition has the human species gradu- 
ally extricated itself, in a bitter struggle for existence, which it 
was well able to maintain by being gifted with a larger amount 
of brain and intelligence than that possessed by the surrounding 
animal world." 

THE END. 



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d«ea, Egypt, Carthage, Persia, Greece, Macedonia, Parthia, and Rome. By 
Gkoboe Rawlinson, M. a., Camden Professor of Ancient History in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. 12mo, Cloth, $2 50. 






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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



029 714 148 A 






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